FIFTH EDITION Conceptual Chemistry - Learn Science

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FIFTH EDITIONConceptualChemistryUNDERSTANDING OUR WORLDOF ATOMS AND MOLECULESJOHN SUCHOCKISaint Michael’s CollegeBoston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle RiverAmsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal TorontoDelhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei TokyoA01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 111/19/12 10:43 AM

Editor in Chief: Adam JaworskiSenior Marketing Manager: Jonathan CottrellAssistant Editor: Coleen MorrisonEditorial Assistant: Fran FalkMarketing Assistant: Nicola HoustonSenior Media Producer: Kristin MayoDirector of Development: Jennifer HartDevelopment Editor: Daniel SchillerManaging Editor, Chemistry and Geosciences: Gina M. CheselkaProduction Project Manager: Connie LongFull-Service Project Management/Composition: GEX Publishing ServicesIllustrations: ImagineeringImage Lead: Maya MelenchuckPhoto Researcher: Eric SchraderText Permissions Manager: Alison BrucknerText Permissions Researcher: GEX Publishing ServicesDesign Manager: Mark OngInterior and Cover Design: Wee Design GroupCover Image Credit: Fire: Lijuan Guo/Fotolia; Sunset: Muzhik/ShutterstockCredits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, withpermission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on p. C1.Copyright 2014, 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001. Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected byCopyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibitedreproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means:electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) touse material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc.,Permissions Department, 1 Lake Street, Department 1G, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their productsare claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and thepublisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initialcaps or all caps.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available upon request from Publisher.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—CRK—16 15 14 13 12www.pearsonhighered.comA01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 2ISBN-10: 0-321-80441-4; ISBN-13: 978-0-321-80441-911/19/12 10:43 AM

To:Neil deGrasse TysoNFor Carrying the CandleA01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 311/19/12 10:43 AM

aBoUT THe aUTHorJohn obtained his Ph.D. in organic chemistry from VirginiaCommonwealth University. He worked as a postdoctoralfellow in pharmacology at the Medical College of Virginiabefore moving to Hawaii to become a tenured professor atLeeward Community College, where his interests turned toscience education and the development of distance learningprograms as well as student-centered learning curricula. Inaddition to writing Conceptual Chemistry, John is the chemistryand astronomy coauthor of the college and high school editions of Conceptual PhysicalScience and Conceptual Integrated Science with physicist Paul Hewitt and others. John iscurrently an adjunct professor at Saint Michael’s College in Colchester, Vermont. Healso produces science multimedia through his company Conceptual Productions, andwrites and illustrates award-winning science-oriented children’s books. John is also anavid songwriter who produces music through his recording label CPro Music.A01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 411/19/12 10:43 AM

BrieF CoNTeNTs1234567891011121314151617About Science 2Particles of Matter 26Elements of Chemistry 58Subatomic Particles 92The Atomic Nucleus 132How Atoms Bond 162How Molecules Mix 194How Water Behaves 228How Chemicals React 260Acids and Bases in Our Environment 294Oxidations and Reductions Charge the World 322Organic Compounds 354Nutrients of Life 396Medicinal Chemistry 438Optimizing Food Production 478Protecting Water and Air Resources 508Capturing Energy 540Appendix AScientific Notation Is Used to Express Large andSmall Numbers A1Appendix BSignificant Figures Are Used to Show Which DigitsHave Experimental Meaning A4Appendix CSolutions to Odd-Numbered ChapterQuestions A7Appendix DPeriodic Table of the Elements, Useful ConversionFactors, and Fundamental Constants A34Glossary G1Credits C1Index I1A01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 511/19/12 10:43 AM

CoNTeNTsTo the Student xviTo the Instructor xviiAcknowledgments xxvii1 About Science2HaNds-oN CHeMisTry The Cool Rubber Band1.1Science Is a Way of Understanding the Natural WorldThe Wheel of Scientific Inquiry1.2The Discovery of the Buckyball1.3Technology Is Applied ScienceRi sk Assessment1.4345910We Are Still Learning about the Natural WorldWhy Should We Learn Science?10121.5Chemistry Is Integral to Our Lives1.6Scientists Measure Physical QuantitiesCalCUlaTioN CorNer UNIT CONVERSION131518CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Global Climate Change2 Particles of Matter2326HaNds-oN CHeMisTry The Breathing Rubber Balloon2.1The Submicroscopic World Is Super-Small272.2Discovering the Atom2.3Mass Is How Much, and Volume Is How Spacious2.4Density Is the Ratio of Mass to Volume293334CalCUlaTioN CorNer MANIPULATING AN ALGEBRAIC EQUATION2.5Energy Is the Mover of Matter372.6Temperature Is a Measure of How Hot—Heat It Is Not2.7The Phase of a Material Depends on the Motion of Its Particles 41Familiar Terms Are Used to Describe Phase Changes2.8Gas Laws Describe the Behavior of GasesBoyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume424445Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Number of Particles46The Ideal Gas Law and Kinetic Molecular Theory46CalCUlaTioN CorNer SCUBA DIVING AND HOT AIR BALLOONSA01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 63844Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperaturevi3648CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Green Chemistry 5611/19/12 10:43 AM

Contents3 Elements of Chemistryvii58HaNds-oN CHeMisTry The Fire-Extinguishing Gas3.1Matter Has Physical and Chemical Properties59Distinguishing Physical and Chemical Changes Can Be Difficult3.2Elements Are Made of Atoms3.3The Periodic Table Helps Us to Understand the ElementsPeriods and Groups65Elements Can Combine to Form Compounds3.5There Is a System for Naming Compounds3.6Most Materials Are Mixtures727375Mixtures Can Be Separated by Physical MeansMatter Can Be Classified as Pure or ImpureCalCUlaTioN CorNer HOW PURE IS PURE?3.867683.43.762The Advent of Nanotechnology76788081CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Extending the Human Life Span4 Subatomic Particles9092HaNds-oN CHeMisTry The Quantized Whistle4.1Physical and Conceptual Models934.2The Electron Was the First Subatomic Particle Discovered4.3The Mass of an Atom Is Concentrated in Its Nucleus4.4The Atomic Nucleus Is Made of Protons and NeutronsCalCUlaTioN CorNer CALCULATING ATOMIC MASSLight Is a Form of Energy4.6Atomic Spectra and the Quantum Hypothesis4.7981001034.5The Quantum Hypothesis95103106107Electrons Exhibit Wave Properties110Probability Clouds and Atomic Orbitals Help Us VisualizeElectron Waves 112Each Orbital Can Hold up to Two Electrons114Energy-Level Diagrams Describe How Orbitals Are Occupied1144.8The Noble Gas Shell Model Simplifies the Energy-Level Diagram4.9The Periodic Table Helps Us Predict Properties of ElementsWhy Atoms toward the Upper Right Are SmallerA01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 7119120The Smallest Atoms Have the Most Strongly Held ElectronsCONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Forensic Chemistry11612113011/19/12 10:43 AM

viii Contents5 The Atomic Nucleus132HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Chain Reactions5.1Radioactivity Results from Unstable Nuclei5.2Radioactivity Is a Natural PhenomenonRems Are Units of Radiation133135136Radioactive Tracers and Medical Imaging1375.3Radioactivity Results from an Imbalance of Forces5.4Radioactive Elements Transmute to Different Elements1405.5The Shorter the Half-Life, the Greater the Radioactivity1425.6Isotopic Dating Measures the Ages of Materials5.7Nuclear Fission—The Splitting of Atomic NucleiNuclear Fission Reactors1381431451475.8The Mass–Energy Relationship: E mc2 1495.9Nuclear Fusion—The Combining of Atomic NucleiControlling Fusion151153CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Fracking for Shale Gas6 How Atoms Bond159162HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Gumdrop Molecules6.1Electron-Dot Structures1636.2Atoms Can Lose or Gain Electrons to Become IonsMolecules Can Form Ions1651676.3Ionic Bonds Result from a Transfer of Electrons1686.4The Electrons of Metallic Bonds Are Loosely Held6.5Covalent Bonds Result from a Sharing of Electrons6.6Valence Electrons Determine Molecular Shape170173177Molecular Shape Is Defined by the Substituent Atoms1796.7Polar Covalent Compounds—Uneven Sharing of Electrons6.8Molecular Polarity—Uneven Distribution of Electrons183CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Toxic Wastes and the Superfund Act7 How Molecules Mix180192194HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Circular Rainbows7.1Four Different Types of Dipole AttractionsIon–Dipole AttractionsDipole–Dipole Attractions196Dipole–Induced Dipole Attractions197Induced Dipole–Induced Dipoles AttractionsA01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 81951951987.2A Solution Is a Single-Phase Homogeneous Mixture7.3Concentration Is Given as Moles per Liter20020311/19/12 10:43 AM

ixContentsCalCUlaTioN CorNer CONCENTRATING ON SOLUTIONS7.4Solubility Is How Well a Solute DissolvesSolubility Changes with TemperatureSolubility of Gases2052052072087.5Soap Works by Being Both Polar and Nonpolar7.6Softening Hard Water7.7Purifying the Water We Drink209211213Fresh Water Can Be Made from Salt WaterIs Bottled Water Worth the Price?215218CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Water Fluoridation8 How Water Behaves226228HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Will the Raindrops Fall?8.18.2Water Molecules Form an Open Crystalline Structure in IceFreezing and Melting Go On at the Same TimeWater Is Densest at 4 C8.3d Liquid Water’s Behavior Results from the Stickiness ofIts Molecules 236236238Water Molecules Move Freely between the Liquid andGaseous Phases 239242It Takes a Lot of Energy to Change the Temperature ofLiquid Water 244CalCUlaTioN CorNer HOW HEAT CHANGES TEMPERATURE2589 How Chemicals React260246247A Phase Change Requires the Input or Output of EnergyCONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Making Paper248NChemical Reactions Are Represented by Chemical EquationsA Quick Guide to Balancing Chemical Equations9.2Counting Atoms and Molecules by Mass9.3Converting between Grams and Moles261264O HHOOO NON OOHH O N OOOHHONO 266268Chemical Reactions Can Be Exothermic or EndothermicAn Exothermic Reaction Involves a Net Release of Energy270271An Endothermic Reaction Involves a Net Absorption of EnergyEnergy Is Conserved in a Chemical Reaction273274Chemical Reactions Are Driven by the Spreading of EnergyA01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 9N ON O263CalCUlaTioN CorNer MASSES OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS9.5OONHaNds-oN CHeMisTry Warming and Cooling Mixtures9.4Od Global Climates Are Influenced by Water’s High Specific Heat9.1d HH233Boiling Is Evaporation beneath the Surface8.6Hydrogen bond231Capillary Action—An Interplay of Adhesive and Cohesive Forces8.5d d The Surface of Liquid Water Behaves Like an Elastic Film8.4d 22927511/19/12 10:43 AM

x Contents9.6Chemical Reactions Can Be Slow or Fast277Activation Energy Is Needed for Reactants to React9.7280Catalysts Speed Up the Destruction of Stratospheric OzoneCatalysts Are Also Most Beneficial282284CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Mercury Emissions29210 Acids and Bases in OurEnvironment 294HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Rainbow Cabbage10.1Acids Donate Protons and Bases Accept Them295The Brønsted–Lowry Definition Focuses on ProtonsThe Lewis Definition Focuses on Lone Pairs295299A Salt Is the Ionic Product of an Acid-Base Reaction10.2Some Acids and Bases Are Stronger Than Others10.3Solutions Can Be Acidic, Basic, or NeutralThe pH Scale Is Used to Describe AcidityCalCUlaTioN CorNer LOGARITHMS AND PH30030130330530610.4Buffer Solutions Resist Changes in pH10.5Rainwater Is Acidic10.6Carbon Dioxide Acidifies the Oceans307309CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Making Glass31232011 Oxidations and ReductionsCharge the World 322HaNds-oN CHeMisTry The Penny Copper Nail11.1Losing and Gaining Electrons32311.2Harnessing the Energy of Flowing Electrons11.3Batteries Consume Chemicals to Generate Electricity11.4Fuel Cells Consume Fuel to Generate Electricity11.5Photovoltaics Transform Light into Electricity11.6Electrolysis Produces Chemical Change11.7Metal Compounds Can Be Converted to Metals325327330334337338Some Metals Are Most Commonly Obtained from Metal OxidesOther Metals Are Most Commonly Obtained from Metal Sulfides11.8Oxygen Is Responsible for Corrosion and CombustionCONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY The Wonder Chemical, but A01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 1033934034235211/19/12 10:43 AM

Contents12 Organic Compoundsxi354HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Rubbing the Wrong Way12.1Hydrocarbons Contain Only Carbon and Hydrogen12.2Unsaturated Hydrocarbons Have Multiple Bonds12.3Functional Groups Give Organic Compounds Character12.4Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers Contain Oxygen12.5Amines and Alkaloids Contain Nitrogen12.6Carbonyl-Containing Compounds36912.7An Example of Organic Synthesis37312.8Organic Molecules Can Link to Form PolymersAddition 375Condensation Polymers12.9355379A Brief History of Plastics381Bakelite Was the First Widely Used PlasticThe First Plastic Wrap Was CellophanePolymers Win in World War II383383384Attitudes about Plastics Have Changed386CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY HAIR AND SKIN CARE13 Nutrients of Life394396HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Sweet Enzymes13.1Biomolecules Are Produced and Utilized in Cells13.2Carbohydrates Give Structure and Energy398Polysaccharides Are Complex Carbohydrates40013.3Lipids Are Insoluble in Water405Fats Are Used for Energy and InsulationSteroids Contain Four Carbon Rings13.4397405406Proteins Are Polymers of Amino Acids408Protein Structure Is Determined by Molecular AttractionsEnzymes Are Biological Catalysts13.5Nucleic Acids Code for ProteinsDNA Is the Template of Life410415416417One Gene Codes for One Polypeptide42013.6Vitamins Are Organic, Minerals Are Inorganic13.7Metabolism Is the Cycling of Biomolecules through the Body13.8The Food Pyramid Summarizes a Healthful DietCarbohydrates Predominate in Most Foods420425425Unsaturated Fats Are Generally More Healthful Than Saturated FatsWe Should Monitor Our Intake of Essential Amino AcidsCONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Partially Hydrogenated FatsA01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 1142342742943611/19/12 10:43 AM

xii Contents14 Medicinal Chemistry438HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Paper Wad Receptor Site14.1Medicines Are Drugs That Benefit the Body14.2The Lock-and-Key Model Guides the Synthesis ofNew Medicines 44114.3Chemotherapy Cures the Host by Killing the DiseaseSulfa Drugs and Antibiotics439444444Chemotherapy Can Inhibit the Ability of Viruses to ReplicateCancer Chemotherapy Targets Rapidly Growing CellsMorphine14.4The Nervous System Is a Network of ve Drugs Alter the Mind or BehaviorStimulants Activate the Stress Neurons455455Hallucinogens and Cannabinoids Alter Perceptions460Depressants Inhibit the Ability of Neurons to Conduct Impulses14.6Pain Relievers Inhibit the Transmission or Perception of Pain14.7Medicines for the Heart463465469CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY The Genetics of Muscle Fitness47615 Optimizing Food Production478HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Cleaning Your Insects15.1Humans Eat at All Trophic Levels15.2Plants Require Nutrients15.3479481Plants Utilize Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium481Plants Also Utilize Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur484Soil Fertility Is Determined by Soil Structure andNutrient Retention 485Soil Readily Retains Positively Charged Ions48615.4Natural and Synthetic Fertilizers Help Restore Soil Fertility15.5Pesticides Kill Insects, Weeds, and FungiInsecticides Kill InsectsHerbicides Kill PlantsFungicides Kill Fungi48849049049349515.6There Is Much to Learn from Past Agricultural Practices15.7High Agricultural Yields Can Be Sustained with Proper PracticesOrganic Farming Is Environmentally Friendly495499Integrated Crop Management Is a Strategy for Sustainable AgricultureCONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Genetically Modified FoodsA01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 1249850050611/19/12 10:43 AM

Contentsxiii16 Protecting Water and AirResources 508HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Rain in a Can16.1Water on the Move50916.2Collectively, We Consume Huge Amounts of Water16.3Human Activities Can Pollute Water511513Microorganisms in Water Alter Levels of Dissolved Oxygen16.4Wastewater Treatment16.5The Earth’s Atmosphere Is a Mixture of GasesSaline water inoceans: 97.2%516CalCUlaTioN CorNer DENSE AS AIR16.6515Ice caps andglaciers: 2.14%Available freshwater: 0.66%518521Human Activities Have Increased Air Pollution521Aerosols and Particulates Facilitate Chemical ReactionsInvolving Pollutants 522There Are Two Kinds of Smog16.7523Carbon Dioxide Helps Keep the Earth Warm526The Potential Effects of Global Climate Change Are UncertainCONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Pseudoscience17 Capturing Energy530538540HaNds-oN CHeMisTry Solar Pool Cover17.1Electricity Is a Convenient Form of EnergyWhat’s a Watt?CalCUlaTioN CorNer KILOWATT-HOURSOur Aging Electric Power Grid17.2541542543543Fossil Fuels Are a Widely Used but Limited Energy SourceCoal Is the Filthiest Fossil Fuel544546EarthPetroleum Is the King of Fossil Fuels549Natural Gas Is the Purest Fossil Fuel54917.3Issues of the Nuclear Industry55017.4What Are Sustainable Energy Sources?17.5Water Can Be Used to Generate Electricity555555Hydroelectric Power Comes from the Kinetic Energy of Flowing WaterTemperature Differences in the Ocean Can Generate ElectricityGeothermal Energy Comes from the Earth’s InteriorThe Energy of Ocean Tides Can Be Harnessed17.6Biomass Is Chemical Energy556557558559Fuels Can Be Obtained from Biomass559Biomass Can Be Burned to Generate ElectricityA01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 1355656011/19/12 10:43 AM

xiv Contents17.7Energy Can Be Harnessed from SunlightSolar Heat Is Easily Collected561561Solar Thermal Electric Generation Produces ElectricityWind Power Is Cheap and Widely Available563Photovoltaics Convert Sunlight Directly to Electricity17.8Solar Energy Can Be Stored as HydrogenFuel Cells Produce Electricity from Fuel561564565566Photovoltaic Cells Can Be Used to Produce Hydrogen from WaterBut Hydrogen May Not Be the Ultimate SolutionIn Perspective566567568CONTEXTUAL CHEMISTRY Issues Facing Our Modern Society574Appendix AScientific Notation Is Used to Express Large and SmallNumbers? A1Appendix BSignificant Figures Are Used to Show Which Digits HaveExperimental Meaning? A4Appendix CSolutions to Odd-Numbered Chapter Questions?A7Appendix DPeriodic Table of the Elements, Useful Conversion Factors, andFundamental Constants? A34Glossary G1Credits C1Index I1A01 SUCH4414 05 SE FM.indd 1411/19/12 10:43 AM

THe CoNCePTUal CHeMisTry PHoTo alBUMConceptual Chemistry is a very personal book, as reflected in the manyphotographs of the author’s family and friends that grace its pages. Key to itsinception is John’s uncle and mentor, Paul Hewitt, author of Conceptual Physics,who appears on page 13. On Uncle Paul’s lap is John’s son Evan Suchocki(pronounced su-HOCK-ee, with a silent c), who, as a toddler, sums up the bookwith his optimistic message.Taking advantage of water’s high heat of vaporization is John’s wife, Tracy,who is seen fearlessly walking over hot coals on page 250 and smelling thefragrant-filled balloon on page 27. She is seen again with their oldest child, Ian,on page 100, and again with their second child Evan on page 64. Their third child,Maitreya Rose, is showcased both as a fetus and as a baby on page 430, with hermother on page 410, and as a 2-year-old holding the cellulose- and color-richVermont autumn leaves on page 404. She appears yet again in the Chapter 12opening photograph on page 354 and with her good friend Annabelle Creech asthey brush their teeth on page 169. About to enjoy his favorite beverage—by theliter—is son Evan on page 16. He appears again on page 45, using balloons todemonstrate the relationship between the volume of a gas and its temperature.Also, their beloved dog, Sam, shows off his great panting ski

science education and the development of distance learning programs as well as student- centered learning curricula. In addition to writing Conceptual Chemistry, John is the chemistry and astronomy coauthor of the college and high school editions of Conceptual Physical Science and Conceptual Integrated Science with physicist Paul Hewitt and .File Size: 2MB

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