European Islam And Reform: A Comparative Study Of The .
EUROPEAN ISLAM AND REFORM:A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE THEOLOGIES OFYUSUF AL-QARADAWI AND TARIQ RAMADANbyMOHAMAD AZMI BIN HAJI MOHAMADA thesis submitted to theUniversity of Birminghamfor the degree ofDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHYDepartment of Theology and ReligionSchool of Philosophy, Theology and ReligionCollege of Arts and LawUniversity of BirminghamSeptember 2014
University of Birmingham Research Archivee-theses repositoryThis unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or thirdparties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respectof this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 oras modified by any successor legislation.Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be inaccordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Furtherdistribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permissionof the copyright holder.
ABSTRACTThis study investigates Yusuf al-Qaradawi’s and Tariq Ramadan’s conceptualizations ofEuropean Islam centering on three thematic issues: “European-Muslim” identity and therole of Muslims in Europe, reform in Islam pertaining to fiqh and Islamic ethics, and thequestion of incompatibility of Sharia with the European cultural system. It produces adetailed critique of the scholars’ positions, analyzes the ways in which their approachesoverlap and differ from one another, evaluates the extent to which they take intoaccount in their thinking the socio-political realities of Islam and Muslims in the West,and determines the feasibility of their propositions in the European context. The studyargues that their approaches are inhibited by impractical suggestions, rhetoricalambiguities, and unexplained gaps that leave room for disagreement beyond the scopeof intra-Muslim debate, but various other components within their thinking can be takenas building blocks that can be assembled into a more functional model that is devoid ofthe inconsistencies and problems identified in the thesis. It recommends that futureresearch on Islam and Muslims in the West inquire further into said limitations andproduce a well-argued critique that can contribute to the contemporary Muslimdiscourse on European Islam and reform.
DEDICATIONTo my parents,Haji Mohamad and Hajah Samsiah
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSIn the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.I have so many to thank, but so little space to do so.My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor, Professor David Thomas, forhaving been such a brilliant and supportive mentor throughout the entire period of mypostgraduate studies (M.A. to Ph.D) at the University of Birmingham. In addition to hismeticulous reading of (and constructive comments on) my drafts, I am most thankful forhis persistence in pushing me beyond what I thought were the limits of my intellectualcapacity. They say your supervisor can make or break your Ph.D; Professor DavidThomas helped make my Ph.D program such a positive experience.No less important, I am indebted to the Government of Brunei Darussalam forhaving fully sponsored my tertiary education for the last 7 years (B.A. to Ph.D), and tothe Bruneian government officers in the UK who looked after my wellbeing andmanaged all the administrative aspects of my grant.My colleagues helped make my time at the University of Birminghamimmensely enjoyable. I am thankful to Ayse for her endless advice and our generalfriendly chats, Mirza for his nerve-calming jokes and our thought-provokingdiscussions, Charles for his genuine prayers and encouragement, and Hafiz Dr. AlmirPramenkovic (Faculty of Islamic Studies, Novi Pazar, Serbia) for having been myhappy pill in Birmingham in the last two anxiety-ridden weeks before my thesis wasdue. I am also grateful to Dr. Ahmet Alibasic (Faculty of Islamic Studies, University ofSarajevo) for his valuable comments on the general aspects of my research.The moral encouragement from my family meant everything and was essentialto my resolve. My sister, Mazidah, was with me in the UK during the one year of my
M.A. and the first two years of my doctoral research, and served as an importantpresence with whom I shared my Ph.D experiences. My brother, Amin, and my youngersister, Hafizah, were my instant “mood-lifters” when I needed them. My childhoodcaretaker, Yuli, was unfailing in sending me words of comfort. Last but not least, myloving parents, Haji Mohamad and Hajah Samsiah, who have been with me in everyphase of my life, are my source of happiness, strength, inspiration, and life. No doubt, Iwould not have managed to complete my Ph.D without their prayers.Azmi MohamadBirminghamSeptember 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTSCHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION1Section 1.1 - Introduction1Section 1.2 - Problem Statement4Section 1.3 - Literature Review4Section 1.4 - Study Focus and Methodology13Section 1.5 - Thesis Organization18Section 1.6 – Significance of the Study20CHAPTER 2 - ISLAM AND MUSLIMS IN POSTWAR EUROPE22Section 2.1 - Muslim Settlement in Western Europe22Section 2.2 – Political Islam: The Modern Problem29Section 2.3 - The “New” Generation of Muslims35Section 2.4 - Euro-Islam and Islamic Europe40CHAPTER 3 - YUSUF AL-QARADAWI AND TARIQ RAMADAN46Section 3.1 – Yusuf al-Qaradawi46Subsection 3.1.1 - Education and Experience47Subsection 3.1.2 - An Extremist, an Innovator, and a Moderate Scholar51Subsection 3.1.3 - Al-Qaradawi on Islam and Muslims in Europe54Section 3.2 – Tariq Ramadan56Subsection 3.2.1 - Education and Experience56Subsection 3.2.2 - The Martin Luther of Islam and an Islamist in Disguise58Subsection 3.2.3 – Ramadan and “European Islam”60
CHAPTER 4 - DA’WA (PROSELYTIZATION) AND SHAHĀDA (TESTIMONY)63Section 4.1 - Introduction63Section 4.2 - Da’wa64Subsection 4.2.1 - Intra-Muslim Da’wa65Subsection 4.2.2 - Extra-Muslim Da’wa68Section 4.3 – Shahāda71Section 4.4 - Discussion84CHAPTER 5 - ADAPTIVE REFORM AND TRANSFORMATIVE REFORM101Section 5.1 - Introduction101Section 5.2 - Al-Qaradawi’s Adaptive Reform and Fiqh al-Aqalliyyat101Subsection 5.2.1 - Conceptual Foundations101Subsection 5.2.2 - Methodological Framework104Section 5.3 - Ramadan’s Transformative Reform and Ethical Reference110Subsection 5.3.1 - Conceptual Foundations110Subsection 5.3.2 - Methodological Framework116Section 5.4 - Discussion122CHAPTER 6 - SHARIA IN EUROPE: THE QUESTION OF INCOMPATIBILITY134Section 6.1 - Introduction134Section 6.2 - Ḥudūd and Islamic Morality136Subsection 6.2.1 - Overview of Ḥudūd and its Controversy136Subsection 6.2.2 - Al-Qaradawi on Ḥudūd and Islamic morality140Subsection 6.2.3 - Ramadan on Ḥudūd and Islamic morality145Section 6.3 - Women in Islam149Subsection 6.3.1 - Al-Qaradawi on Women in Islam151Subsection 6.3.2 - Ramadan on Women in Islam162Section 6.4 - Discussion167
CHAPTER 7 - STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF AL-QARADAWI’S ANDRAMADAN’S POSITIONS179Section 7.1 - The Theology of al-Qaradawi179Subsection 7.1.1 - Strengths179Subsection 7.1.2 - Weaknesses186Section 7.2 - The Theology of Ramadan190Subsection 7.2.1 - Strengths190Subsection 7.2.2 - Weaknesses197Section 7.3 – Discussion201CHAPTER 8 - CONCLUSION212Section 8.1 - Introduction212Section 8.2 - Summary of Arguments and Findings213Subsection 8.2.1 – Da’wa and Shahāda213Subsection 8.2.2 – Adaptive Reform and Transformative Reform215Subsection 8.2.3 – Sharia in Europe: The Question of Incompatibility218Subsection 8.2.4 – Strengths and Weaknesses of al-Qaradawi’s and Ramadan’sPositions220Section 8.3 - Concluding Statements222Section 8.4 - Suggestions on Future Research225
TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC WORDSAlphabetRomanization ء ʼ ﺍا ā (long vowel) ﺏب b ﺕت t ﺙث th ﺝج j ﺡح ḥ ﺥخ kh ﺩد d ﺫذ dh ﺭر r ﺯز z ﺱس s ﺵش sh ﺹص ṣ ﺽض ḍ ﻁط ṭ ﻅظ ẓ ﻉع ʻ ﻍغ gh
ﻑف f ﻕق q ﻙك k ﻝل l ﻡم m ﻥن n ﻩه h ﻭو w; ū (long vowel) ﻱي y; ī (long vowel) ﻯى á ﺍاﻝل al-DIPTHONGSْ ﻭو awْ ﻱي ayNotes: The transliteration system used in this thesis is that employed by the AmericanLibrary Association and the Library of Congress (ALA-LC). Exceptions to itsstandard rules are explained below. Non-vocalized tāʼ marbūṭa ( )ﺓة is omitted from the transliteration (e.g., sunna,sharia, and khamsa) Arabic words that have come into general use in the English language areneither transliterated nor italicized (e.g., Qur’an, Sunna, Islam, jihad, and fatwa)
The noun-ending ‘s’ is added to pluralize the term “fatwa” (e.g., fatwas) The initial letters of the terms “Qur’an”, “Sunna”, “Sharia”, and “Islam” arecapitalized in all cases
ABBREVIATIONSIHRL -International Human Rights LawUDHR -Universal Declaration of Human RightsECHR -The European Court of Human RightsECFR -European Council for Fatwa and ResearchICCPR -International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
NOTES ON TERMINOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONS OF QUR’ANICREFERENCESThe study uses the following terms in the same way they are used by al-Qaradawi andRamadan:1. “Europe” and “West”:Although it is acknowledged that these two terms do not necessarily carry thesame meaning (the West includes Europe, but Europe is not all of the West), thestudy uses them both interchangeably when discussing theoretical issues thattranscend national, cultural, and geographical differences. In the case of issuesthat are confined to a particular context (e.g., the Headscarf Affair and theconcept of Laïcité in France), the study distinguishes between the two terms andmakes every effort to underline country-specific or culture-specific factorsrelated to the discussion.2. “Integration” and “assimilation”:The study differentiates between the terms “integration” and “assimilation”;“integration” allows the minorities to participate in society and co-exist with themajority without being required to lose their unique cultures, while“assimilation” requires the absorption of minorities into the majority culture andthe abolishment of the former’s cultural peculiarities.
3. All English translations of Qur’anic verses in the thesis are taken from SaheehInternational, unless otherwise stated.
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION1.1IntroductionOnce a nascent area of research that sparked little interest in academia, the studyof contemporary Islam and Muslim minorities in Europe has now become one of themost compelling subjects to venture into, owing largely to the growing presence ofMuslims in the region following waves of postwar mass migration that has accentuateddistinctive cultural differences, and to a convulsing string of Muslim-associatedinternational crises in the last few decades that has generated enormous intellectualcuriosity as to whether Islam is compatible with the ideals of modern society and humanrights. While such debate has a global following, nowhere in the world is it morepronounced and intense than in Europe, whether this is due to the noted “assertiveness”of secularism in the region or the general assumption that many European countrieshave relatively limited experience with large-scale immigration (as compared to NorthAmerica and Australia), and thus, with accommodating ethnic and religious diversity(or both). With this trend come increasing expressions of the need to create a“European” version of Islam that is informed by the region’s values and compatiblewith its notions of secularism.As can be immediately noticed, the concept of “European Islam” is elusive andits definition multivalent; the number of meanings associated with it may be about asmany as the number of countries in Europe. This notion was first introduced in the early90s by Bassam Tibi, a German political scientist of Syrian origin and Muslim faith, whocriticized the prevailing traditional form of Islam in the Muslim world and argued that1
Muslims should embrace the dominant European culture as their own (Mende, 2013).While some may revel at the idea of an Islam that is devoid of all practices and beliefsthat contradict the normative cultural system in Europe, others may scoff at it as beingnondescript and submissive to the demands of European authorities. More important,however, is the fact that this definition of “European Islam” is not shared by other morepopular Muslim key theorists in the related area, such as Yusuf al-Qaradawi and TariqRamadan1. The latter scholars promulgate a more “balanced” form of European Islam –one that marries the core precepts of Islam with the common values upheld by Europeansociety as a whole rather than yielding acquiescently to the cultural expectations of thecontext, and that which strikes a balance between religious extremism and religiousindifference. This strand of thinking is known as waṣatiyya (moderation), to which alQaradawi professedly adheres and with which Ramadan is often associated. WhileTibi’s theory of European Islam does not seem to attract much attention in academia - aphenomenon he himself laments, that of al-Qaradawi and that of Ramadan continue togenerate huge interest among academics from various research orientations.The concept of “European Islam” is further obscured by that of “Islamicreform”, particularly with regard to the latter’s terms, boundaries, and application in themodern world. While some would insist that Islam is inherently a reformist religion, asit calls for the revival of the Divine message that is believed to have been revealed tothe messengers preceding the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and for the abolition ofcorrupt cultural norms that had interwoven themselves with religious practice, manyothers would argue that it cannot be reformed due to the belief that it is already a1A biography of the two scholars is provided in Chapter 32
“perfect” religion, as described in the Qur’an2. The general idea of “reform”, however,can be found in the Islamic tradition, and is represented by the Arabic terms tajdīd(inner revival) and iṣlāh (external reform). Accordingly, increasing numbers ofacademics have begun to tap more deeply into the notion of “Islamic modernism” – areformist trend believed to have been initiated by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (d. 1897C.E.) and resumed by Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905 C.E.) and Rashid Rida (d. 1935C.E.) - that can bring about the rejuvenation of Islam and Muslim thinking and thereconciliation of the faith and modern values.As two of the most popular figures within the vibrant (though small) communityof contemporary Muslim “reformers”, Yusuf al-Qaradawi and Tariq Ramadan bothembrace modernity and continue to ruminate on how to make Islam relevant to thepresent context, but they each have developed their own reformist worldviews, goals,and methodologies, and have consequently come to be known for promulgatingdifferent models of reform and European Islam. Al-Qaradawi is noted for his Islamiststance and for having developed an “adaptive” strategy that entails a gradualcoordination of Muslim needs and societal expectations through fiqh al-aqalliyyat(jurisprudence of minorities) in the last few decades, while Ramadan continues to gainattention for his universalist perspective and his proposition for a “transformative”reform that involves a holistic redesigning of methodological approaches to theinterpretation of the Islamic Revelation and ethics in all aspects of life. Despite thescholars’ popularity, there has yet to be an in-depth comparative study of their thinkingand models of reform in English, particularly in the context of European Islam.2‘ This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and haveapproved for you Islam as religion.’ (Qur’an, 5:3)3
1.2Problem StatementAs is clear from the general issues presented above, the ideal European Islamwould be one that is both true to the Islamic tradition and suited to the practicalities oflife in the region, however theoretical this description may be. This version of Islamwould consequently be accepting of pluralism in its full sense, supportive ofinternational human rights while espousing God’s limits (as understood by Muslims),conducive to the positive negotiation of multiple identities among European-Muslimminorities, and, most importantly, capable of being accommodated to new situations asopposed to the situations having to be accommodated to its teachings. This ambitiousnotion, however, is muddled by various problems; first, there seems to be no unanimityamong Muslim scholars as to the line between what can and cannot be reformed inIslam; second, there is disunity (sectarianism) in the Muslim world and among theMuslim communities in the West with regard to Islam and its hermeneutics; third, thereis a conflict of interest between the Muslim proponents of Islamization and those ofreconciliation; fourth, there is no consensus as to how a “balanced” Islam, as propagatedby al-Qaradawi and Ramadan, is supposed to be realized in practical terms. As theseissues continue to be debated intensely, there remains uncertainty and controversy as tohow, and whether, Islam can be accommodated to the European context beyond themere (unproven) assumption that it can.1.3Literature ReviewWhile the state of literature on al-Qaradawi’s and Ramadan’s religio-politicalthoughts on Islam and Muslim minorities in Europe is noticeably dismal, a large portionof the sporadic studies done on the topic are of biographical, historical, and illustrative4
nature; much effort has been invested in trying to explain who the scholars are and howthey have to come to be who they are, to pinpoint the exact locations of their thinkingbetween the two ends of liberal and extreme, and to unveil the “reality” beneath theirpublic façade than in engaging critically with the substance of their sophisticatedthinking. Although it is acknowledged that the unfolding of their personas may helpprovide a basis for understanding the roots and motivations that lie beneath theirtheories, it does not make substantial strides in contributing to the study on how Muslimminorities can bring Islam into harmony with the realities and practicalities of life inEurope. The few studies that will be reviewed in this section are those that have placedtheir focus, at least partially, on the scholars’ propositions and ideas.In Yusuf al-Qaradawi: Islam and Modernity, Helfont (2009) attempts tounderstand al-Qaradawi’s persona within the framework of “modernity”3 and determinehow modernity has affected the development of Islam and the scholar’s thinking.Helfont analyzes al-Qaradawi’s approach to five themes that have become popular inthe present discourse on contemporary Islam: Modernity, jihad, interfaith relations,democracy, and women. He makes use of a large number and variety of primary andsecondary sources that consist of hundreds of the scholar’s fatwas, sermons, andinterviews in the media in both English and Arabic, claiming that no in-depth work ofthe same length on al-Qaradawi had been published in English prior to his ownresearch. Given the primary objective of Helfont’s research, the findings in his work areconcentrated preponderantly on al-Qaradawi’s rhetoric and how it supposedly reflectsthe scholar’s innermost thinking. While there is little engagement with the substance ofal-Qaradawi’s ideas, Helfont manages to discover what he believes to be contradictions3In his research, modernity is defined as an environment in which an individual enjoys the right toautonomy in their private life, which implies that they are free to determine their own circumstances, asopposed to acquiescing to external dictations (e.g., religion and culture) (Helfont, 2009).5
in the scholar’s fatwas and theories on issues of human rights (e.g., apostasy,homosexuality, women, and interfaith relations). He argues that al-Qaradawi is bothprogressive and reactionary depending on whom he is compared with, and on thespecific aspects of the scholar’s thinking on which one chooses to focus. Based on hisfindings, he concludes that al-Qaradawi has been largely misrepresented by manyWestern academics and politicians as being a purely “moderate” and “progressive”thinker due to their tendency to compare
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE THEOLOGIES OF YUSUF AL-QARADAWI AND TARIQ RAMADAN by MOHAMAD AZMI BIN HAJI MOHAMAD A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology and Religion School of Philosophy, Theology and Religion Colleg
Islam merupakan upaya mengatasi beberapa problem kejiwaan yang 10 Hamdani Bakran Adz-Dzaky. Konseling dan Psikoterapi Islam (Yogyakarta: Al-Manar, 2008), 228. 11 Fuad Anshori, Aplikasi Psikologi Islam (Yogyakarta: 2000), 242. 33 didasarkan pada pandangan agama Islam. Psikoterapi Islam mempercayai
Islam means submission to God. The word "Islam" is an Arabic word derived from the root word "salaam", which means peace. Therefore, the word Islam implies submitting to God, living in peace with oneself as well as others and with the environment. The people that practice Islam are called Muslims.
acuan hidup mereka. Peranan media dalam Islam mestilah menonjolkan prinsip yang selari dengan ajaran yang telah ditetapkan oleh Islam. Dalam konteks komunikasi Islam yang mempunyai ruang lingkup yang lebih luas tentang media, Islam telah menetapkan bahawa media Islam mestilah selari dengan peranan agama Islam.
KATA PENGANTAR Dewasa ini kajian tentang Islam Nusantara sangat banyak diminati tidak hanya oleh orang Islam di Nusantara saja tetapi juga oleh orang-rang Islam Luar Negeri. Studi Islam Nusantara, berkaitan dengan ajaran atau nilai Islam secara dogmatis dan aplikatif yang berm
dibuktikan melalui buku-bukunya antara lain, Ilmu Pendidikan Islam, Ilmu Pendidikan Islam dengan Pendekatan Multidisipliner, Filsafat Pendidikan Islam,Metodologi Studi Islam, Pemikiran Para Tokoh Pendidikan Islam, Perspektif Islam t
ISLAM IN AFRICA urging the creation of a Muslim state governed by a Muslim leader with Sharia (Islam law or the law of Allah) as the basis for law and governance. As a result of Dan Fodio's efforts, an Islamic state was created in the north in the 19th century, and with the implementation of Sharia, Islam moved from the so-
ISLAM Islam is the third and most recent of the religions that began in the Middle East. Followers of Islam are called Muslims, the Arabic word for "one who submits." The prophet and founder of Islam was Muhammad, who lived from 570 to 632 in what is today Saudi Arabia. Today, Islam is the major religion in most of Asia and Africa.
POLITICAL ISLAM Religious Islam is defined as doctrine concerned with going to Paradise and avoiding Hell by following the Koran and the Sunna. The part of Islam that deals with the “outsider”, the Kafir, is defined as political Islam. Since so much of the Trilogy is about the Kafir, the statistical conclusion is
