Basic Principles Of Landscape Design1
CIR536Basic Principles of Landscape Design1Gail Hansen2La n d s c a p e d e s i g n e r s w o r k on a canvasthat is distinctly different from other art forms.The “art” is always changing as the plants grow,environmental conditions change, and people use the space.For this reason, landscape designers use a design processthat systematically considers all aspects of the land, theenvironment, the growing plants, and the needs of the userto ensure a visually pleasing, functional, and ecologicallyhealthy design.Elements and PrinciplesThe design process begins by determining the needs anddesires of the user and the conditions of the site. With thisinformation, the designer then organizes the plants andhardscape materials, which are collectively referred to asthe features. The features can be physically described bythe visual qualities of line, form, color, texture, and visualweight—the elements of design. The principles are thefundamental concepts of composition—proportion, order,repetition, and unity—that serve as guidelines to arrange ororganize the features to create an aesthetically pleasing orbeautiful landscape.LineLine in the landscape is created by the edge between twomaterials, the outline or silhouette of a form, or a longlinear feature. Lines are a powerful tool for the designerbecause they can be used to create an infinite variety ofshapes and forms, and they control movement of the eyeand the body. Landscape designers use lines to createpatterns, develop spaces, create forms, control movement,establish dominance, and create a cohesive theme in alandscape. Landscape lines are created several ways: whentwo different materials meet on the ground plane, suchas the edge of a brick patio meeting an expanse of greenturf; or when the edge of an object is visible or contrastswith a background, such as the outline of a tree against thesky; or by the placement of a material in a line, such as afence. Figure 1 shows common landscape lines, includingbedlines, hardscape lines, path lines, sod lines, and fencelines. Lines can have one or more characteristics, such asthose described below, but they typically serve differentpurposes.Knowledge of the elements and principles of design isessential to designing a landscape and working throughthe design process. This publication describes each of theelements and explains the principles and their application.Elements of DesignThe elements of composition are the visual qualities thatpeople see and respond to when viewing a space. Visualqualities can illicit many different emotions and feelings,and the more positive those feelings, the more likely peopleare to enjoy and use a space. Perhaps the most commonelement in a composition is line. Line creates all formsand patterns and can be used in a variety of ways in thelandscape.f i g u r e 1 . Lines in the landscape1 This document is CIR536, one of a series of the Environmental Horticulture Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date July 2010. ReviewedSeptember 2019. Visit the EDIS website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.2 Gail Hansen, assistant professor, Environmental Horticulture Department, UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
Informal, naturalistic forms include meandering lines,organic edges, and fragmented edges. Plants create form inthe garden through their outlines or silhouettes, but formcan also be defined by a void or negative space betweenplants.Properties of LinesThe properties of lines determine how people respond tothe landscape, both emotionally and physically.Straight linesStraight lines are structural and forceful; they create aformal character, are usually associated with a symmetricaldesign, and lead the eye directly to a focal point. Diagonallines are straight lines with an intentional direction.Straight lines are most often found in hardscape edges andmaterial.Geometric FormsCircular formCircles can be full circles, or they can be divided into halfcircles or circle segments and combined with lines to createarcs and tangents. Figure 2 shows the use of circle segmentsfor hardscape and lawn panels. Circles can also be stretchedinto ovals and ellipses for more variety and interest. Circlesare a strong design form because the eye is always drawn tothe center, which can be used to emphasize a focal point orconnect other forms.Curved linesCurved lines create an informal, natural, relaxed characterthat is associated more with nature and asymmetricalbalance. Curved lines move the eye at a slower pace and addmystery to the space by creating hidden views.Vertical linesVertical lines move the eye up, making a space feel larger.An upward line can emphasize a feature and has a feelingof activity or movement. Vertical lines in the landscapeinclude tall, narrow plant material, such as trees, or tallstructures, such as an arbor or a bird house on a pole.Horizontal linesHorizontal lines move the eye along the ground plane andcan make a space feel larger. Low lines are more subduedand create a feeling of rest or repose. Horizontal lines canspatially divide a space or tie a space together. Low lines arecreated by low garden walls, walkways, and short hedges.Lines are used to draw forms on a plan. In plan view, theydefine plant beds and hardscape areas. Lines are alsocreated by the vertical forms of built features and plantmaterial. There are three primary line types that createform in the landscape: bedlines, hardscape lines, and plantlines. Bedlines are created where the edge of the plant bedmeets another surface material, such as turf, groundcover,gravel, or patio pavers. Bedlines connect plant material tothe house and hardscape because the eye follows the line,moving the gaze through the landscape. Hardscape linesare created by the edge of the hardscape, which delineatesthe built structure. Line can also be created by long andnarrow materials, such as a fence or wall.f i g u r e 2 . Circular forms in hardscape and lawn panelsSquare formSquares are used for a variety of features, includingstepping stones, bricks, tiles, and timber structures, becausethey are an easy form to work with for construction. Thesquare form can also be segmented and used repeatedly tocreate a grid pattern. Unlike circles, squares are strongeron the edges, which can be lined up or overlapped to createunique patterns and more complex forms.Irregular polygonsPolygons are many-sided forms with straight edges.Triangles, for example, are three-sided polygons. The anglededges of polygons can make interesting shapes, but theyshould be used cautiously because the forms can becomecomplex; simplicity is best.FormShape is created by an outline that encloses a space, andform is the three-dimensional mass of that shape. Formis found in both hardscape and plants, and it is typicallythe dominant visual element that spatially organizes thelandscape and often determines the style of the garden. Theform of structures, plant beds, and garden ornaments alsodetermines the overall form theme of the garden. Formal,geometric forms include circles, squares, and polygons.Naturalistic FormsMeandering linesMeandering lines often mimic the natural course of riversor streams and can be described as smooth lines with2
deeply curved undulations. Meandering lines (Figure 3)work well for pathways, plant bedlines, and dry streambeds. Meandering lines can add interest and mystery to agarden by leading viewers around corners to discover newviews and spaces.f i g u r e 5 . Fragmented edges: stepping stones in pathwayPlant FormsForm is the most enduring quality of a plant. Commonplant forms are well established and standardized, as formis the most consistent and recognizable characteristic ofplants. Form can also be created through the massing ofplants, where the overall mass creates a different formthan an individual plant. A strong form that contrasts withthe rest of the composition will have greater emphasiswithin the composition. A highly contrasting form mustbe used with care—one or two work well as a focal point,but too many create chaos. Natural plant forms, ratherthan over-trimmed forms, should establish the bulk of thecomposition. The relevance of overall form is more or lessdependent on the viewing perspective—the form of a treecan appear quite different to a person standing under thecanopy versus viewing the tree from a distance in an openfield. Vertical forms add height; horizontal forms add width.Plant forms also create and define the void or open spacesbetween the plants, creating either convex or concave formsin the voids. High-arching tree branches typically createa concave open space under the branches, and a roundcanopy with low branches fills the space to create a convexform in the open space under the tree.f i g u r e 3 . Meandering lines in the landscapeOrganic edgesOrganic edges mimic the edges of natural material, suchas foliage, plant forms, and rocks, and can be described asrough and irregular. Organic lines can be found in rockgardens and along dry creek beds or purposely created onhardscape edges.Tree formsCommon tree forms (Figure 6) include round, columnar,oval, pyramidal, vase shaped, and weeping. Differenttree forms are used for visual appeal, but the form isalso important for function. Creating a shady area inthe garden requires a round or oval tree, while a screenusually requires a more columnar or pyramidal form, and aweeping tree form makes a good focal point.f i g u r e 4 . Organic edges: irregular edge of rock gardenFragmented edgesFragmented edges resemble broken pieces scattered fromthe edge, such as stones or pavers, and are often used tocreate a gradually disappearing edge on patios or walkways.3
People can often perceive a form when only a portion of it isvisible. Familiarity and the suggestion of a form is enoughfor the eye to fill in the rest. Repetition of form is essentialto the creation of pattern, which is the basic organizationalstructure of the landscape.Form is also the primary determinant of a formal orinformal garden. Geometric forms with straight edges aretypical of formal gardens that are based on an establishedstyle, such as contemporary or Italian gardens. Aninformal garden has more naturalistic, organic formsthat are normally found in gardens that mimic nature.Form compatibility is also a major component of unity indesign—one or two strikingly different forms are good forcontrast and emphasis, but generally all other forms shouldhave some similarities for a unified look.f i g u r e 6 . Tree formsShrub formsShrub forms (Figure 7) include upright, vase shaped,arching, mounding, rounded, spiky, cascading, andirregular. Choosing shrub forms often depends on whetherthe shrub will be used in a mass or as a single specimen.Mounding and spreading shrubs look best in a mass, andcascading and vase-shaped shrubs do well as specimenplants.TextureTexture refers to how coarse or fine the surface of theplant or hardscape material feels and/or looks. Textureis used to provide variety, interest, and contrast. Theplant’s foliage, flowers, bark, and overall branching patternall have texture. The size and shape of the leaves oftendetermines the perceived texture of the plant. A plant cangenerally be described as having a coarse, medium, or finetexture. Coarse texture is more dominant than fine andalso tends to dominate color and form, while fine textureis more subordinate to other qualities and tends to unifycompositions. Coarse-textured plants attract the eye andtend to hold it because the light and dark contrasts of theshadows provide more interest. Fine texture exaggeratesdistance and gives the feeling of a larger, more open space.Rough texture minimizes distance—plants appear closerGroundcover formsGroundcover forms (Figure 7) include matting, spreading,clumping, sprawling, and short spikes. Almost allgroundcovers look better in masses because they aretypically small, ground-hugging plants that have very littleimpact as individual plants.Properties of FormForm is very powerful because people can often recognizeand identify a feature based on an outline or silhouette.f i g u r e 7. Shrub and groundcover forms4
and the space feels smaller, or enclosed. Texture is alsofound in the hardscape, including on buildings, patios,walls, and walkways.space feel smaller, place the coarse textures along the outerperimeter and the fine textures closest to the viewer. Thedetail of the coarse texture makes the plants appear closerand makes the space feel smaller. The perceived texture ofplants can also change with the distance from the plant.Plants that are coarse close-up can look fine textured froma distance. Bold colors increase the contrast and makethe texture appear coarser, while muted colors can flattentexture. Hardscape with a coarse texture—such as veryrough rocks and bold, large timbers—tends to make allplant material appear more medium textured. Designersoften develop a texture study (Figure 8) on paper to helpdecide the arrangement of plant materials. The drawingmimics texture by using different line weights and spacingto represent fine, medium, and coarse textures.Coarse texturePlant characteristics that create coarse texture includelarge leaves; leaves with very irregular edges; bold, deepveins; variegated colors; thick twigs and branches; leavesand twigs with spines or thorns; and bold, thick, and/or irregular forms. Each leaf of a coarse-textured plantbreaks up the outline, which gives the plant a looserform. Examples of plants with coarse texture includephilodendrons, agaves, bromeliads, hollies, palms, andhydrangeas. Hardscape with coarse texture includes roughcut stone, rough-finished brick, and unfinished wood withknots and a raised grain. Aged or old construction materialthat maintains a weather-beaten surface is often coarse intexture.Fine textureCharacteristics that create fine texture include smallfoliage; thin, strappy leaves (grasses) or tall, thin stems; tiny,dense twigs and small branches; long stems (vines); andsmall, delicate flowers. They are often described as wispyand light or with a sprawling, vining form. Fine-texturedplants sometimes have a stronger form because the smallindividual leaves are densely packed (e.g., boxwoods)to create a solid edge. Plants with a fine texture includegrasses, ferns, Japanese maples, many vines, and juniperswith fine needles. Hardscape with fine texture includessmooth stone, wood or ceramic pots, and glass ornaments.Smooth water, such as that found in a reflecting pool, orwater with a very fine spray is considered fine textured.f i g u r e 8 . Texture studyColorColor in plant material and hardscape adds interest andvariety to the landscape. Color is the most conspicuouselement in the landscape and is usually the focus of mosthomeowners; however, it is also the most temporaryelement, usually lasting only a few weeks a year forindividual plants. The use of color is guided by color theory(use of the color wheel) to create color schemes. A simpledescription of the color wheel includes the three primarycolors of red, blue, and yellow; the three secondary colors(a mix of two primaries) of green, orange, and violet; andsix tertiary colors (a mix of one adjacent primary andsecondary color), such as red-orange. Color theory explainsthe relationship of colors to each other and how they shouldbe used in a composition. The basic color schemes aremonochromatic, analogous, and complementary.Medium textureMost plants are medium texture, in that they cannot bedescribed as having either coarse or fine texture. They arecharacterized by medium-sized leaves with simple shapesand smooth edges. The average-sized branches are notdensely spaced nor widely spaced, and the overall form istypically rounded or mounding. Medium-textured plantsact as a background to link and unify the coarse- andfine-textured plants. Plants with medium texture includeagapanthus, ardisia, camellia, euonymus, pittosporum,and viburnum. Hardscape with a medium texture includesstandard flagstone pavers, broom-brushed concrete, andfinished woods.Monochromatic schemeA monochromatic color scheme uses only one color. Inlandscaping, this usually means one other color besides thegreen color in the foliage. A garden that is all green dependsmore on form and texture for contrast and interest. Onecolor can have many light and dark variations, which canadd interest. An example of a monochromatic scheme is awhite garden with white flowers, white variegated foliage,and white garden ornaments.Properties of TextureTexture affects the perception of distance and scale. Tomake a space feel larger, locate plants so that the finetextures are along the outer perimeter, the medium texturesare in the middle, and the coarse textures are closest tothe viewer. The small size of the fine texture recedes in thelandscape and is perceived as being farther away. To make a5
Analogous schemeAnalogous (sometimes called harmonious) color schemesare any three to five colors that are adjacent on the colorwheel, such as red, red-orange, orange, yellow-orange, andyellow, or blue, blue-violet, and violet. The colors are relatedto each other because they typically include two primarycolors mixed to form a secondary and two tertiary colors,which means they share common properties.amount of intense color has as much visual weight as a largeamount of a more subdued or weaker color. Color schemesin the garden can change with the seasons. Summer colorsare usually more varied and bright with more flowers, whilewinter colors tend to be monochromatic and darker withmore foliage. Color is also affected by light quality, whichchanges with the time of day and time of year. Brighter,more intense summer sun makes colors appear moresaturated and intense, while the filtered light of wintermakes colors appear more subdued. When choosing a colorscheme, consideration should be given to the time of daythe yard will be used. Because color is temporary, it shouldbe used to highlight more enduring elements, such astexture and form. A color study (Figure 9) on a plan view ishelpful for making color choices. Color schemes are drawnon the plan to show the amount and proposed location ofvarious colors.Complementary schemeComplementary colors are those that are opposite eachother on the color wheel. They tend to have high contrastbetween them. The most common sets are violet and yellow,red and green, and blue and orange. Complementary colorsare often found naturally in flowers; a common pair isyellow and violet.Color in Plants and HardscapeColor is found in the flowers, foliage, bark, and fruit ofplants. Foliage typically provides the overall backgroundcolor for flower colors. Green foliage in all its various shadesis the dominant color by quantity, but other colors captureattention more readily because of their high contrast to thecolor green.Color is also found in buildings, rocks, pavers, wood, andfurniture. Most colors in natural materials, such as stoneand wood, are typically muted and tend to be variationsof brown, tan, and pale yellow. Bright colors in thehardscape are usually found in man-made materials, suchas painted furniture, brightly colored ceramic containers orsculptures, and glass ornaments.Properties of ColorColor is an important element for creating interest andvariety in the landscape. Colors have properties that canaffect emotions, spatial perception, light quality, balance,and emphasis. One property of color is described relativeto temperature—colors appear to be cool or warm and canaffect emotions or feelings. Cool colors tend to be calmingand should be used in areas for relaxation and serenity.Warm colors tend to be more exciting and should be usedin areas for entertaining and parties. The “temperature” ofcolors can also affect the perception of distance. Cool colorstend to recede and are perceived as being farther away,making a space feel larger. Warm colors tend to advanceand are perceived as being closer, making a space feelsmaller.f i g u r e 9. Color stud
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 1. 2 properties of lines The properties of lines determine how people respond to the landscape, both emotionally and physically. straight lines Straight lines are structural and forceful; they create a formal character, are usually associated with a symmetrical
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