How The Web Changes Work, Education, And The Ways People
GROWING UPD I G I TA LHow the Web Changes Work,Education, and the Ways People LearnBy John Seely BrownBIn 1831 Michael Faraday built a small generatorthat produced electricity, but a generationpassed before an industrial version was built,then another 25 years before all the necessaryaccoutrements for electrification came intoplace—power companies, neighborhood wiring,appliances (like light bulbs) that required electricity,and so on. But when that infrastructure finally took hold,everything changed—homes, work places, transportation,Illustration by John Dykes/Showcase Stockentertainment, architecture, what we ate, even when wewent to bed. Worldwide, electricity became a transformativemedium for social practices.John Seely Brown is the chief scientist of Xerox and director of its Palo Alto ResearchCenter.10Change March/April 2000Change March/April 200011
mental properties; see how they might createa new kind of information fabric in whichlearning, working, and playing co-mingle;examine the notion of distributed intelligence;ask how one might better capture and leverage naturally occurring knowledge assets; andfinally get to our core topic—how all of thismight fold together into a new concept of“learning ecology.” Along the way, too, we’lllook frequently at learning itself and ask notonly how it occurs now, but how it can become ubiquitous in the future.A New MediumIn quite the same way, the World WideWeb will be a transformative medium, as important as electricity. Here again we have astory of gradual development followed byan exploding impact. The Web’s antecedentstrace back to a U.S. Department of Defenseproject begun in the late 1960s, then to theinnovations of Tim Berners-Lee and othersat the Center for European Nuclear Researchin the late 1980s, followed by rapid adoptionin the mid- and late-1990s. Suddenly we hade-mail available, then a new way to look upinformation, then a remarkable way to do ourshopping—but that’s barely the start. Thetremendous range of transformations wroughtby electricity, so barely sensed by our grandparents a century ago, lie ahead of us throughthe Web.No one fully knows what those transformations will be, but what we do know is thatinitial uses of new media have tended tomimic what came before: early photographyimitated painting, the first movies the stage,etc. It took 10 to 20 years for filmmakers todiscover the inherent capabilities of theirnew medium. They were to develop techniques now commonplace in movies, such as“fades,” “dissolves,” “flashbacks,” “time andspace folds,” and “special effects,” all radically different from what had been possiblein the theater. So it will be for the Web. Whatwe initially saw as an intriguing network ofcomputers is now evolving its own genresfrom a mix of technological possibilities andsocial and market needs.Challenging as it is, this article will try tolook ahead to understand the Web’s funda12The first thing to notice is that the mediawe’re all familiar with—from books to television—are one-way propositions: they pushtheir content at us. The Web is two-way,push and pull. In finer point, it combinesthe one-way reach of broadcast with the twoway reciprocity of a mid-cast. Indeed, itsuser can at once be a receiver and senderof “broadcast”—a confusing property, butmind-stretching!A second aspect of the Web is that it is thefirst medium that honors the notion of multiple intelligences. This past century’s conceptof “literacy” grew out of our intense beliefin text, a focus enhanced by the power of oneparticular technology—the typewriter. It became a great tool for writers but a terribleone for other creative activities such assketching, painting, notating music, or evenmathematics. The typewriter prized one particular kind of intelligence, but with theWeb, we suddenly have a medium that honors multiple forms of intelligence—abstract,textual, visual, musical, social, and kinesthetic. As educators, we now have a chanceto construct a medium that enables all youngpeople to become engaged in their ideal wayof learning. The Web affords the match weneed between a medium and how a particularperson learns.A third and unusual aspect of the Web isthat it leverages the small efforts of the manywith the large efforts of the few. For example,researchers in the Maricopa County Community College system in Phoenix have found away to link a set of senior citizens with pupilsin the Longview Elementary School, ashelper-mentors. It’s wonderful to see—kidslisten to these “grandparents” better than theydo to their own parents, the mentoring reallyhelps their teachers, and the seniors createa sense of meaning for themselves. Thus, thesmall efforts of the many—the seniors—complement the large efforts of the few—theteachers.The same thing can be found in operationChange March/April 2000at Hewlett-Packard, where engineers use theWeb to help kids with science or math problems. Both of these examples barely scratchthe surface as we think about what’s possiblewhen we start interlacing resources withneeds across a whole region.The Web has just begun to have an impact on our lives. As fascinated as weare with it today, we’re still seeing itin its early forms. We’ve yet to see the fullmotion video and audio possibilities thatawait the bandwidth we’ll soon have throughcable modems and DSL; also to come are thenew Web appliances, such as the portableWeb in a phone, and a host of wireless technologies. As important as any of these is theimagination, competitive drive, and capitalbehind a thousand companies—chased by aswelling list of dot-coms—rushing to bringnew content, services, and “solutions” tooffices and homes.My belief is that not only will the Web beas fundamental to society as electrification,but that it will be subject to many of the samediffusion and absorption dynamics as thatearlier medium. We’re just at the bottom ofthe S-curve of this innovation, a curve thatwill have about the same shape as with electrification, but a much steeper slope than before. As this S-curve takes off, it creates hugeopportunities for entrepreneurs. It will beentrepreneurs, corporate or academic, whowill drive this chaotic, transformative phenomenon, who will see things differently,challenge background assumptions, and bringnew possibilities into being. Our challengeand opportunity, then, is to foster an entrepreneurial spirit toward creating newlearning environments—a spirit that will usethe unique capabilities of the Web to leveragethe natural ways that humans learn.Digital LearnersLet’s turn to today’s youth, growing up digital. How are they different? This subject matters, because our young boys and girls aretoday’s customers for schools and colleges andtomorrow’s for lifelong learning. Approximately four years ago, we at Xerox’s Palo AltoResearch Center started hiring 15 year olds tojoin us as researchers. We gave them two jobs.First, they were to design the “workscape” ofthe future—one they’d want to work in; second, they were to design the school or “learningscape” of the future—again, with the samecondition. We had an excellent opportunity towatch these adolescents, and what we saw—the ways they think, the designs they came upChange March/April 2000with—really shook us up.For example, today’s kids are always“multiprocessing”— they do several thingssimultaneously—listen to music, talk on thecell phone, and use the computer, all at thesame time. Recently I was with a young twenty-something who had actually wired a Webbrowser into his eyeglasses. As he talkedwith me, he had his left hand in his pocket tocord in keystrokes to bring up my Web pageand read about me, all the while carrying onwith his part of the conversation! I was astonished that he could do all this in parallel andso unobtrusively.People my age tend to think that kids whoare multiprocessing can’t be concentrating.That may not be true. Indeed, one of thethings we noticed is that the attention spanof the teens at PARC—often between 30 seconds and five minutes—parallels that of topmanagers, who operate in a world of fast context-switching. So the short attention spansof today’s kids may turn out to be far fromdysfunctional for future work worlds.Let me bring together our findings bypresenting a set of dimensions, and shiftsalong them, that describe kids in the digitalage. We present these dimensions in turn, butthey actually fold in on each other, creating acomplex of intertwined cognitive skills.The first dimensional shift has to dowith literacy and how it is evolving.Literacy today involves not only text,but also image and screen literacy. The abilityto “read” multimedia texts and to feel com13
concerned with the deductive and abstract.But our observation of kids working with digital media suggests bricolage to us more thanabstract logic. Bricolage, a concept studied byClaude Lévi-Strauss more than a generationago, relates to the concrete. It has to do withabilities to find something—an object, tool,document, a piece of code—and to use it tobuild something you deem important. Judgment is inherently critical to becoming an effective digital bricoleur.How do we make good judgments? Socially, in terms of recommendations from peoplewe trust? Cognitively, based on rationalargumentation? On the reputation of a sponsoring institution? What’s the mixture ofways and warrants that you end up usingto decide and act? With the Web, the sheerscope and variety of resources befuddles thenon-digital adult. But Web-smart kids learnto become bricoleurs.fortable with new, multiple-media genres isdecidedly nontrivial. We’ve long downplayedthis ability; we tend to think that watching amovie, for example, requires no particularskill. If, however, you’d been left out of society for 10 years and then came back and sawa movie, you’d find it a very confusing, evenjarring, experience. The network newsshows—even the front page of your dailynewspaper—are all very different from 10years ago. Yet Web genres change in aperiod of months.The new literacy, beyond text and image,is one of information navigation. The real literacy of tomorrow entails the ability to beyour own personal reference librarian—toknow how to navigate through confusing,complex information spaces and feel comfortable doing so. “Navigation” may well be themain form of literacy for the 21st century.The next dimension, and shift, concernslearning. Most of us experienced formallearning in an authority-based, lecture-oriented school. Now, with incredible amountsof information available through the Web,we find a “new” kind of learning assumingpre-eminence—learning that’s discoverybased. We are constantly discovering newthings as we browse through the emergentdigital “libraries.” Indeed, Web surfingfuses learning and entertainment, creating“infotainment.”But discovery-based learning, even whencombined with our notion of navigation, isnot so great a change, until we add a third,more subtle shift, one that pertains to formsof reasoning. Classically, reasoning has been14The final dimension has to do with a biastoward action. It’s interesting to watchhow new systems get absorbed by society; with the Web, this absorption, or learningprocess, by young people has been quite different from the process in times past. My generation tends not to want to try things unless oruntil we already know how to use them. If wedon’t know how to use some appliance or software, our instinct is to reach for a manual ortake a course or call up an expert. Believe me,hand a manual or suggest a course to 15 yearolds and they think you are a dinosaur. Theywant to turn the thing on, get in there, muckaround, and see what works. Today’s kids geton the Web and link, lurk, and watch how otherpeople are doing things, then try it themselves.This tendency toward “action” brings usback into the same loop in which navigation,discovery, and judgment all come into playin situ. When, for example, have we lurkedenough to try something ourselves? Once wefold action into the other dimensions, we necessarily shift our focus toward learning in situwith and from each other. Learning becomessituated in action; it becomes as much socialas cognitive, it is concrete rather than abstract,and it becomes intertwined with judgment andexploration. As such, the Web becomes notonly an informational and social resource buta learning medium where understandings aresocially constructed and shared. In that medium, learning becomes a part of action andknowledge creation.Creating KnowledgeTo see how all these dimensions work, it’sChange March/April 2000necessary to look at knowledge—its creationand sharing—from both the standard Cartesian position and that of the bricoleur.Knowledge has two dimensions, the explicitand tacit. The explicit dimension deals withconcepts—the “know-whats”—whereas thetacit deals with “know-how,” which is bestmanifested in work practices and skills. Sincethe tacit lives in action, it comes alive in andthrough doing things, in participation witheach other in the world. As a consequence,tacit knowledge can be distributed amongpeople as a shared understanding thatemerges from working together, a point wewill return to.The developmental psychologist JeromeBruner made a brilliant observation yearsago when he said we can teach people abouta subject matter like physics—its concepts,conceptual frameworks, its facts—and provide them with explicit knowledge of thefield, but being a physicist involves a lotmore than getting all the answers right at theend of each chapter. To be a physicist, wemust also learn the practices of the field, thetacit knowledge in the community of physicists that has to do with things like whatconstitutes an “interesting” question, whatproof may be “good enough” or even “elegant,” the rich interplay between facts andtheory-formation, and so on. Learning to bea physicist (as opposed to learning aboutphysics) requires cutting a column down themiddle of the diagram, looking at the deepinterplay between the tacit and explicit.That’s where deep expertise lies. Acquiringthis expertise requires learning the explicitknowledge of a field, the practices of itscommunity, and the interplay between thetwo. And learning all this requires immersion in a community of practice, enculturation in its ways of seeing, interpreting, andacting.The epistemic landscape is more complicated yet because both the tacit and explicitdimensions of knowledge apply not only tothe individual but also to the social mind—to what we’ve called communities of practice. It’s common for us to think that allknowledge resides in individual heads, butwhen we factor in the tacit dimension—especially as it relates to practices—we quickly realize how much more we can know thanis bounded by our own knowledge. Much ofknowing is brought forth in action, throughparticipation—in the world, with other people, around real problems. A lot of ourknow-how or knowing comes into beingthrough participating in our community(ies)of practice.Change March/April 2000Understanding how intelligence isdistributed across a broader matrixbecomes increasingly critical if wewant to leverage “learning to learn,” becauselearning to learn happens most naturallywhen you and a participant are situatedin a community of practice. Returning toBruner’s notion of learning to be, recall thatit always involves processes of enculturation.Enculturation lies at the heart of learning. Italso lies at the heart of knowing. Knowing hasas much to do with picking up the genres of aparticular profession as it does with learningits facts and concepts.Curiously, academics’ values tendto put theory at the top in importance, withthe grubbiness of practice at the bottom. Butthink about what you do when you get a PhD.The last two years of most doctoral programsare actually spent in close work with professors, doing the discipline with them; theseyears in effect become a cognitive apprenticeship. Note that this comes after formalcourse work, which imparted relevant factsand conceptual frameworks. Those frameworks act as scaffolding to help structure thepractice developed through the apprenticeship. So learning in situ and cognitive apprenticeship fold together in this notion ofdistributed intelligence.I dwell on this point because each of us hasvarious techniques, mostly invisible, that weuse day in and day out to learn with and fromeach other in situ. This is seen all the time ona campus, where students develop techniquesfor learning that span in-class and out-ofclass experiences—all of campus lifeWe hired severalanthropologists to golive in the tech reps’“tribe” and see howthey actuallyworked.15
is about learning how to learn. Collegesshould appreciate and support such learning;the key to doing so lies in understanding thedynamic flow in our two-by-two matrix.If we could use the Web to support thedynamics across these quadrants, we couldcreate a new fabric for learning, for learningto learn in situ, for that is the essence of lifelong learning.Repairing PhotocopiersTalk about a “two-by-two conceptual framework of distributed intelligence” can be terriblyabstract; let me bring this to life, and move ourargument ahead, with a story from the companywhere I work. When I arrived at Xerox, back inthe 1980s, the company was spending millionsand millions of dollars a year training its 23,000“tech reps” around the world—the people whorepair its copiers and printers. Lots of that training—it was like classroom instruction—seemed to have little effect. Xerox wanted meto come up with some intelligent-tutoring orartificial-intelligence system for teachingthese people troubleshooting. Fortunately,before we did so, we hired several anthropologists to go live in their “tribe” and see howthey actually worked.What the anthropologists learned surprised us. When a tech rep got stuck by amachine, he or she didn’t look at the manualor review the training; he or she called another tech rep. As the two of them stood overthe problematic machine, they’d recall earlier machines and fixes, then connect thosestories to a new one that explained some ofthe symptoms. Some fragment of the initial16story would remind them of another incident, which suggested a new measurementor tweak, which reminded them of anotherstory fragment and fix to try, and so on.Troubleshooting for these people, then, really meant construction of a narrative, one thatfinally explained the symptoms and test dataand got the machine up and running again.Abstract, logical reasoning wasn’t the waythey went about it; stories were.This example demonstrates the crucial roleof tacit knowledge (in the form of stories)within a community of practice (the techreps). But the anthropologists had more to tellus. What happened to these stories? When thereps got back to the home office, awaiting thenext call, they’d sit around and play cribbage,drink coffee, and swap war stories. Amazingamounts of learning were happening in thetelling and hearing of these stories. In thetelling, a story got refined, added to, arguedabout, and stored away for use.Today, brain scientists have helped us understand more about the architecture of themind and how it is particularly well suited toremembering stories. That’s the happy part.The sad part is that some Xerox executivesthought storytelling had to be a waste oftime; big posters told the reps, “Don’t tellwar stories!” Instead, people were sent backfor more training. When people returnedfrom it, what did they do? Tell stories aboutthe training, of course, in attempts to transform what they’d been told into somethingmore useful.Let me add here that these studies convinced us that for powerful learning to occur,you had to look to both the cognitive and thesocial dimensions. They also led us to ask,How can we leverage this naturally occurringlearning?Our answer to that question was simple:two-way radios. We gave everybody in ourtech rep “community of practice” test sitea radio that was always on, with their ownprivate network. Because
necessary to look at knowledge—its creation and sharing—from both the standard Carte - sian position and that of t
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Le genou de Lucy. Odile Jacob. 1999. Coppens Y. Pré-textes. L’homme préhistorique en morceaux. Eds Odile Jacob. 2011. Costentin J., Delaveau P. Café, thé, chocolat, les bons effets sur le cerveau et pour le corps. Editions Odile Jacob. 2010. Crawford M., Marsh D. The driving force : food in human evolution and the future.
Le genou de Lucy. Odile Jacob. 1999. Coppens Y. Pré-textes. L’homme préhistorique en morceaux. Eds Odile Jacob. 2011. Costentin J., Delaveau P. Café, thé, chocolat, les bons effets sur le cerveau et pour le corps. Editions Odile Jacob. 2010. 3 Crawford M., Marsh D. The driving force : food in human evolution and the future.
