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MASS MEDIA RESEARCH
From the Wadsworth Series in Mass Communication and JournalismGeneral Mass CommunicationPublic Relations and AdvertisingBiagi, Media/Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media,Ninth EditionHilmes, Connections: A Broadcast History ReaderHilmes, Only Connect: A Cultural History of Broadcastingin the United States, Third EditionLester, Visual Communication: Images with Messages,Fifth EditionOverbeck, Major Principles of Media Law, 2011 EditionStraubhaar/LaRose, Media Now: Understanding Media,Culture, and Technology, Sixth EditionZelezny, Cases in Communications Law, Sixth EditionZelezny, Communications Law: Liberties, Restraints, andthe Modern Media, Sixth EditionDiggs-Brown, The PR Styleguide: Formats for PublicRelations Practice, Second EditionDrewniany/Jewler, Creative Strategy in Advertising, TenthEditionHendrix, Public Relations Cases, Eighth EditionNewsom/Haynes, Public Relations Writing: Form andStyle, Ninth EditionNewsom/Turk/Kruckeberg, This Is PR: The Realities ofPublic Relations, Tenth EditionJournalismBowles/Borden, Creative Editing, Sixth EditionDavis/Davis, Think Like an Editor: 50 Strategies for thePrint and Digital WorldHilliard, Writing for Television, Radio, and New Media,Tenth EditionKessler/McDonald, When Words Collide: A Media Writer’sGuide to Grammar and Style, Seventh EditionRich, Writing and Reporting News: A Coaching Method,Sixth EditionResearch and TheoryBaran and Davis, Mass Communication Theory:Foundations, Ferment, and Future, Fifth EditionSparks, Media Effects Research: A Basic Overview, ThirdEditionWimmer and Dominick, Mass Media Research: AnIntroduction, Ninth Edition
Ninth EditionMASS MEDIA RESEARCHAn IntroductionROGER D. WIMMERWimmer ResearchJOSEPH R. DOMINICKUniversity of GeorgiaAustralia Brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States
Mass Media Research: An Introduction,Ninth EditionRoger D. Wimmer and Joseph R. DominickSenior Publisher: Lyn UhlPublisher: Michael RosenbergDevelopmental Editor: Stacey SimsAssistant Editor: Jillian D’UrsoEditorial Assistant: Erin PassMedia Editor: Jessica BadinerMarketing Manager: Bryant ChrzanMarketing Coordinator: Darlene MacananMarketing Communications Manager:Christine Dobberpuhl 2011, 2006, 2003 Wadsworth, Cengage LearningALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyrightherein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or byany means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited tophotocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution,information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, exceptas permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States CopyrightAct, without the prior written permission of the publisher.For product information and technology assistance, contact us atCengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706.For permission to use material from this text or product,submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions.Further permissions questions can be emailed topermissionrequest@cengage.com.Senior Content Project Manager:Rosemary WinfieldLibrary of Congress Control Number: 2009936675Art Director: Linda HelcherISBN-13: 978-1-4390-8274-4Production Service: Pre-PressPMG,Sini SivaramanISBN-10: 1-4390-8274-XManufacturing Buyer: Justin PalmeiroWadsworth20 Channel Center StreetBoston, MA 02210USAManufacturing Manager: Denise PowersRights Acquisitions Manager, Text:Margaret Chamberlain-GastonRights Acquisitions Manager, Image:Mandy GroszkoCover Image: CorbisCompositor: Pre-PressPMGCengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions withoffice locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom,Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local office atwww.cengage.com/globalCengage Learning products are represented in Canada byNelson Education, Ltd.To learn more about Wadsworth, visit www.cengage.com/wadsworthPurchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferredonline store www.ichapters.comPrinted in the United States of America1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 12 11 10 09
We would first like to thank our developmental editor, Stacey Sims, and our project manager,Sini Sivaraman, for the enormous amount of work they accomplished in a very short timeperiod. Without their help, this edition would not have been completed on time.Next, our families have supported us through some or all of the nine editions of thisbook, and we would like to thank all of them . . .Roger Wimmer: Darnell, Leigh, Shad, Crystal, Taylor, Jeremy, Dawn, Carl, Nancy, Mark,Karen, Kelley, Justin, Rick, Carol, Suzanne, Ron, Kyle, Cristina, Ryan, Jennifer, Rob, Jillian,Chris, Shane, Sondra, Nicole, Michael, and MarkJoe Dominick: Carole, Meaghan, Aimee, Ron, Jeff, Aidan, Cassidy, Reagan, and MurrayWe would also like to thank several people who read portions of the ninth editionmanuscript: Larry Barnes, Chuck Browning, Paul Douglas, Keith Duner, E. Karl Foulk,Donna Kohnke, John Mocella, and Jennifer Samuel.Finally, we thank all the teachers and students who have used Mass Media Research: AnIntroduction in the past and those who will use it in the future.Roger WimmerJoseph Dominick
BRIEF CONTENTSPrefacePart ThreeData AnalysisxPart OneThe Research ProcessChapter 10Introduction to StatisticsChapter 1Science and Research1Chapter 11Hypothesis TestingChapter 2Elements of Research42Chapter 3Research EthicsChapter 4SamplingChapter 5Qualitative Research MethodsChapter 13Newspaper and MagazineResearch332114Chapter 15Research in Advertising184Chapter 9Experimental ResearchviChapter 14Research in the Electronic MediaChapter 16Research in Public Relations155Chapter 8Longitudinal Research304Part FourResearch Applications64Part TwoResearch ApproachesChapter 7Survey Research289Chapter 12Basic Statistical Procedures86Chapter 6Content Analysis266Appendix Tables218GlossaryName Index238Subject Index423438448454380405350
CONTENTSPrefacexLevels of Measurement51Measurement Scales53Specialized Rating Scales55Reliability and Validity57Part OneThe Research ProcessChapter 1Science and ResearchChapter 3Research Ethics1Introduction2What Is Research?2Getting Started5The Development of Mass MediaResearch6Media Research and the ScientificMethod9The Methods of Knowing10Characteristics of the ScientificMethod11Two Sectors of Research: Academicand Private14Research Procedures16Determining Topic Relevance20Stating a Hypothesis or ResearchQuestion24Data Analysis and Interpretation25Internal Validity26External Validity31Presenting Results31Research Suppliers and Field Services32Chapter 2Elements of Research42Concepts and Constructs43Independent and Dependent VariablesQualitative and Quantitative ResearchThe Nature of Measurement49444864Ethics and the Research Process65Why Be Ethical?65General Ethical Theories66Ethical Principles67Specific Ethical Problems69Ethics and Online Research81Chapter 4Sampling86Population and Sample87Research Error88Types of Sampling ProceduresSample Size102Sampling Error10489Part TwoResearch ApproachesChapter 5Qualitative Research Methods114Aims and Philosophy115Data Analysis in QualitativeResearch119Field Observation124Focus Groups132Intensive Interviews139Case Studies140vii
viiiContentsEthnography145Writing the Qualitative ResearchReport148Chapter 6Content Analysis155Definition of Content Analysis156Uses of Content Analysis157Limitations of Content Analysis159Steps in Content Analysis160Reliability170Validity175Examples of Content Analysis176Content Analysis and the Internet177Chapter 7Survey ResearchChapter 9Experimental Research238Advantages and Disadvantages of LaboratoryExperiments239Conducting Experimental Research241Control of Confounding Variables243Experimental Design246Field Experiments254Conducting Experiments Online260Part ThreeData AnalysisChapter 10Introduction to Statistics184Descriptive and AnalyticalSurveys185Advantages and Disadvantagesof Survey Research185Constructing Questions186Questionnaire Design195Pretesting200Gathering Survey Data201A Special Note on Using the Internetfor Data Collection211Achieving a ReasonableResponse Rate212General Problems in SurveyResearch213Chapter 8Longitudinal Research218Development219Types of Longitudinal Studies220Panel Studies226Special Panel Designs230Analyzing Causation in Panel Data232Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Datain Longitudinal Research233Longitudinal Research onthe Internet233Longitudinal Design inExperiments234Descriptive StatisticsSample DistributionData TransformationChapter 11Hypothesis Testing266267282286289Research Questions and HypothesesTesting Hypotheses for StatisticalSignificance293Power Analysis299Chapter 12Basic Statistical Procedures304History of Small-Sample StatisticsDegrees of Freedom305Nonparametric Statistics308Parametric Statistics312Part FourResearch ApplicationsChapter 13Newspaper and MagazineResearch332Background333Types of Research335Website Usability Research290346305
ContentsChapter 14Research in the Electronic Media350Background351Ratings Research352Nonratings Research369Chapter 15Research in AdvertisingChapter 16Research in Public RelationsTypes of Public Relations ResearchResearch in the Public RelationsProcess406Public Relations Research and theInternet418380Copy Testing381Media Research388Campaign Assessment Research393Qualitative Techniques in AdvertisingResearch395Advertising Research and the Internet399Appendix TablesGlossaryName IndexSubject Index423438448454405406ix
PREFACEPlease read this Preface. The information is important to help make your experience withthis book more rewarding.Things change constantly in all areas of life,and it is sometimes difficult to keep up withall the changes. In every edition of this text,we are faced with several new technologiesand research approaches that didn’t exist ina previous edition. It has been interesting towatch the development of such things as satellite television and radio, the Internet, MP3players, CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray, and more. Eachinvention offers a wealth of new researchtopics and opportunities, and it has beenfun to observe how mass communicationconstantly changes.As mass media teachers and professionalresearchers, we want to provide you withthe most detailed and most current information possible. However, that is a difficulttask with a textbook since changes in massmedia research happen frequently. Our bestalternative, therefore, is to help you find themost current information about the topicswe discuss in this text.Therefore, throughout this text, we provide many Internet searches to help you findmore information about the topics we discussin the book. Please use these search suggestions. You’ll see that we use a specific formatfor the searches we suggest. Enter the searchexactly as we suggest, although you may feelfree to go beyond the searches we provide.xThe format we use for Internet searchesis italics. That is, whenever we suggest anInternet search, the search is shown in italics.If you see quote marks with the search,be sure to include those because they areimportant in refining the search and eliminating useless information. For example, ifwe recommend that you search the Internetfor more information about this text andsuggest “Mass media research” WimmerDominick, then input your search exactly aswritten, including the quote marks.If you are new to using Internet searchengines, please go to our book website atwww.wimmerdominick.com and read thearticle about using search engines in the“Readings” section.Approach and OrganizationAs in the previous editions, our goal is toprovide you with the tools you need to usemass media research in the professionalworld through simplified explanations ofgoals, procedures, and uses of informationin mass media research. We want you to becomfortable with research and to recognizeits unlimited value, so we use extensive practical applications to illustrate its use in theworld today.
PrefaceThe book is divided into four parts.In Part One, we begin with an overviewof mass communication research, including elements, ethics, and sampling. PartTwo explores each major approach to research, including qualitative research, content analysis, survey research, longitudinalresearch, and experimental research. In PartThree, we continue with a section on dataanalysis, covering statistics and hypothesistesting. Part Four concludes the book witha forward-looking section on research applications, including those for newspapersand magazines, electronic media, advertising, and public relations that provide additional information and enhance learningand understanding of concepts.New to This EditionWe have made substantial changes to mostof the chapters in this edition. The changeswere made based on comments from teachers, students, and media professionals whohave used our book, as well as changesin the media industries. The Internet hasgreatly affected mass media research, andwe have tried to document its impact inthe appropriate chapters. In addition to the16 chapters in the ninth edition, you willfind two chapters on the text’s companionwebsite: “Research in Media Effects” and“Writing Reports.” The website also now includes the sample ratings book pages fromArbitron and Nielsen that were used in theeighth edition.Additional InformationPlease make use of the website we constructed as a companion for our text(www.wimmerdominick.com). The websiteincludes a variety of information including Supplemental Information, Readings,xiChapter Questions & Exercises, ResearchIdeas, Information Sources, Statistics Sources,Student Resources prepared by Wadsworth/Cengage, Sampling calculators, and a linkto The Research Doctor Archive (RogerWimmer’s column on AllAccess.com).We update the website whenever wefind something of interest to mass media researchers, so visit often. If you haveany suggestions for additional content onthe site, please contact one of us. In addition, Wadsworth Cengage Learning has another book companion website that offersa variety of information to help in learningabout mass media research. The website islocated here: www.cengage.com/masscomm/wimmer/mediaresearch9e (a link is on ourtext website).Finally, we added an opportunity for students and other readers to submit questionsin the “Chapter Questions & Exercises” portion of the text’s website. We encourage allof you to submit questions and exercises forothers around the world to use.AcknowledgmentsWe would like to express our gratitude to themany individuals who have provided assistance to us over the years. For this edition inparticular, we would like to thank the team atWadsworth Cengage Learning for their workon our behalf: Michael Rosenberg, Publisher,Humanities; Megan Garvey, Associate Development Editor; Jill D’Urso, Assistant Editor;Erin Pass, Editorial Assistant; Erin Mitchell,Marketing Manager, Communications; andRosemary Winfield, Senior Content ProjectManager, who efficiently oversaw the production of the book. We would also like to expressour gratitude to Stacey Sims, who provided anenormous amount of support throughout therewriting stage of this project.
xiiPrefaceFinally, we are especially grateful to thefollowing reviewers whose experience withthe previous edition and expert feedbackhelped shape the new edition: Anne Danehy,Boston University; Koji Fuse, University ofNorth Texas; Walter Gantz, Indiana University; and George Watson, Arizona StateUniversity.Your FeedbackAs we have stated in the previous eight editions: If you find a serious problem in thetext or the website, please contact one of us.Each of us will steadfastly blame the otherfor the problem and will be happy to giveyou his home telephone number (or forwardany email). Have fun with the book and thewebsite. The mass media research field is stilla great place to be!Roger WimmerDenver, seph DominickDacula, Georgiajoedom@uga.edu
CHAPTER 1SCIENCE AND RESEARCHC H AP T E R O U T LINEIntroductionStating a Hypothesis or Research QuestionWhat Is Research?Data Analysis and InterpretationGetting StartedInternal ValidityThe Development of Mass MediaResearchExternal ValidityMedia Research and the ScientificMethodResearch Suppliers and Field ServicesThe Methods of KnowingCharacteristics of the Scientific MethodTwo Sectors of Research: Academic andPrivateResearch ProceduresDetermining Topic RelevancePresenting ResultsSummaryKey TermsUsing the InternetQuestions and Problems for FurtherInvestigationReferences and Suggested Readings1
2Part One The Research ProcessINTRODUCTIONWhen hearing the term mass media researchfor the first time, many people ask two questions: (1) What are the mass media? and(2) What types of things do mass mediaresearchers investigate? Let’s address thesequestions before getting to the specifics ofresearch.What are the mass media? The termmass media refers to any form of communication that simultaneously reaches a largenumber of people, including but not limitedto radio, TV, newspapers, magazines, billboards, films, recordings, books, and theInternet.What types of things do mass mediaresearchers investigate? Here are a fewexamples: Which format should a radio stationadopt? Which songs should a radio stationplay? What type of hosts do listeners wanton a radio station’s morning show? What do viewers think about a pilotfor a new TV show? What do viewers like most and likeleast about their favorite local TV newsprogram? Why is a current TV program not performing as well as was anticipated? How effective is advertising on TV,radio, the Internet, and in all types ofprint? Which ads do readers see most often intheir local newspaper? Why are newspaper subscriptionsdeclining? What should a politician include incampaign messages? Who should be the spokesperson for anew consumer product? Who should be the host of a new TVgame show? Are there more violent acts on TV nowthan five years ago? Which websites are popular and why? What are the elements of a successfulmagazine cover page? How many employees read their company’s internal newspaper?The types of questions investigated inmass media research are virtually unlimited.However, even this short list demonstrateswhy it’s necessary to understand massmedia research—because literally everyarea of the mass media uses research, andanyone who works in the media (or plansto) will be exposed to or will be involved inresearch.Our goal in this book is to introduce youto mass media research and dispel many ofthe negative thoughts people may have aboutresearch, especially a fear of having to usemath and statistics. You will find that you donot have to be a math or statistics wizard. Theonly thing you need is an inquiring mind.WHAT IS RESEARCH?Regardless of how the word research is used,it essentially means the same thing: an attemptto discover something. We all do this everyday. This book discusses many of the differentapproaches used to discover something in themass media.Research can be very informal, with onlya few (or no) specific plans or steps, or it canbe formal, where a researcher follows highlydefined and exacting procedures. The lackof exacting procedures in informal researchdoes not mean the approach is incorrect,and the use of exacting procedures does notautomatically make formal research correct.Both procedures can be good or bad—itdepends on how the research is conducted.
Chapter 1The important thing for all researchers tounderstand is the correct methods to followto ensure the best results.Most people who conduct research arenot paid for their efforts. Although the research industry is an excellent field to enter,our approach in this book is to assume thatmost readers will not become (or are not now)paid professional researchers. We assumethat most of you will work for, or are alreadyworking for, companies and businesses thatuse research, or that you are simply interestedin finding out
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