Educational Theories And Instructional Design Models
Educational Theories and Instructional Design Models.Their Place in Simulation.Lyn Taylor, RN, BN, Cert Perioperative Nursing, Grad Dip Nursing (Perioperative),M Ed (AVET) MRCNA, MCNNursing Education and Research, Southern HealthLyn.Taylor@southernhealth.org.auAbstract. Simulation is a unique learning environment, as it allows participants to experience critical careinterventions in a ‘safe’ environment. A good understanding of educational theory and instructional design isrequired to ensure meaningful learning is experienced. Simulation allows a variety of learning theories to be applieddue to the wide variety and complexity of the clinical situations presented. Understanding how we learn allows us totailor simulation to individuals and groups. Once a theory or theories have been chosen for the particular area offocus within the simulation environment, a structured design for the education basis must also be taken. Using aninstructional design model, planning, implementation, and evaluation of courses and programs becomes morestructured. Regardless of the educational theories supported by each simulation centre, instructional design modelscan be utilised. This paper will discuss some of the educational and instructional design theories and models suitedto simulation1.INTRODUCTIONSimulation is a unique learning environment as itallows participants to experience critical careinterventions in a ‘safe’ environment. It is thereforeimportant to have an understanding of a variety ofeducational theories and instructional design models.As there are many theories and models suited tosimulation it is imperative that the right theory ormodel be employed for the desired learning outcome.This paper will explore some of the relevanteducational theories and instructional design modelsbest suited to the simulation environment.2.EDUCATIONAL THEORIESBehaviourism, constructivism and cognitivism arethree of the commonly used educational theories today.Of these theories there are many exponents of each, allwho have undertake extensive research and are viewedas experts in their respective field of research. Eachtheory has several components.2.1BehaviourismBehaviourists viewed learning as a sequence ofstimulus and response actions in the learner. They viewthe teachers or instructors role as one of modifyingbehaviour, by setting up situations whereby learning isreinforced by the desired responses being exhibited.Behaviourism has it roots in the findings of theAmerican psychologist John B. Watson in 1913 [4], [8]Watson based his studies on the works of Pavlov andhis dogs in the 1890’s .When a natural reflex occurs asa response to a stimulus, it is referred to as classicalconditioning. Pavlov discovered during his studies thatsome of the more experienced dogs commencingsalivation whenever they saw the person who wasfeeding them even if they did not arrive with any food.The younger dogs also salivated, but only whenpresented with food. Pavlov surmised that the olderdogs had learned something that the younger ones hadnot They had learned to associate the sight of theperson feeding them (stimulus) with the salivation (theresponse). [12]The work of Watson and Pavlov were furtherdeveloped by B.F Skinner in the 1930’s [8]. Skinnerbuilt a ‘box’ in which he was able to teach animals toreceive food by pecking or tapping a bar or light. Hereferred to this as operant conditioning. Operantconditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus isreinforced. [5], [4]. As with Skinner’s animals, we canelicit a response from scenario participants bycontrolling manikin outcomes through an operantconditioning model. An example of this is whereoxygen is applied to the manikin. If this is appliedcorrectly and at the correct rate, the controller rewardsthe participant by increasing the oxygen saturations. Ifit is not applied correctly, the oxygen saturations arelowered further. Console controllers have been heard tosay ‘I’ll reward that” or ‘They didn’t apply the correctrate so I’ll drop the saturations.” This is an example ofoperant conditioning in the simulation setting.2.2CognitivismWhile behaviourism was the predominant learningtheory for the first half of the twentieth century, theywere focused only studying observable behaviours.Thinking processes or other unobservable phenomenawere not considered.[22]Cognitivists believe that learning occurs when thelearner processes information. [16] Jean Piaget began aresearch program in the 1920’s that played a major partin the development of cognitive theories. He developed
his theory by watching and observing children. [17].Piaget’s theory used the premise that as a childdevelops, they build and develop cognitive structuressuch as mental maps or linked concepts in theirresponse to experiences that occur within theirenvironment. He also identified four distinct stages ofdevelopment. As the child passes through these stages,they build concepts about reality and how it worksthrough physical interaction with their environment,moving through to develop conceptual reasoning. [17].In the development of this theory, Piaget used astandard set of questions as a starting point, thenallowed questions to be flexible enough to follow atheme or train of thought to be followed to where thechild wanted to go with it. He believed thatspontaneous comments provided valuable clues to thethinking and understanding associated with thelearning. [22]. He was not interested in a so called‘right answer’ but rather the focus of the logic andthinking that the learner exhibited. For learning tooccur, the individual must assimilate the learning intotheir existing cognitive structures.[16].Jerome Bruner also had profound influence in theeducational thinking of the late 1950’s and early1060’s. He is associated with the term ‘discoverylearning’[5]. According to Bruner, there are threecomponents to learning a subject. 1. Acquisition ofnew information; which is normally built on somethingthat is already known, 2. Transformation ofinformation; This is where new information is analysedand processed for use in new situations, and 3.Evaluation; where all aspects of the processing ofinformation is evaluated to check whether it iscorrect.[19]Cognitivism is suited to debriefing of scenarios. Herethe debriefer asks a set of questions to the participantsfollowing a scenario. It is the learner or participant whothen allows the flow of thoughts and direction that theconversation takes. It is the role of the debriefer toguide the participants to the next question and facilitatetheir journey to learning and reflection. It is also wherenew information is acquired, transformed andevaluated by the participant through being involved inthe scenarios and the debriefing process.2.3ConstructivismUsing a constructivism approach to learning, thelearners ability to solve real life practical problems isemphasised. Constructivism is founded on ideas that byreflecting on our experiences, we generate our ownunderstanding of the world. Major proponents ofconstructivism theory include Malcolm Knowles, CarlRogers, and David Kolb.Malcolm Knowles has become synonymous with adultlearning theory. He used the term andragogy which hadbeen used by Alexander Kapp to describe Plato’seducational theory. [10]. Andragogy is defined as ‘theart and science of helping adults learn.’ Whileandragogy has been synonymous with adult learning, itrefers to learner focused education for people of allages.[11]. Pedagogy on the other hand refers to ’the artand science of educating children.’ Pedagogy embodiesteacher focused education. It is the teachers who decidewhat, how and when it will be learned. The teacherdirects the learning.Carl Rogers, a psychotherapist, developed an newapproach that he called client centred therapy. Thisinvolved the therapist taking a ‘non-directive role inwhich the client is encouraged to develop a deeperunderstanding of his or her ‘self’’[19].This concept ledRogers to develop a student centred approach tolearning. . he also saw the teacher as the facilitator oflearning, providing the resources for learning, andsharing feelings as well as knowledge with thelearners.[18].David Kolb is renowned for his work in thedevelopment of the experiential learning model orcycle. This is also become known as ‘Kolb’s Cycle’Kolb refers to this as ‘The Lewinian ExperientialLearning Model’ as he believes that experientiallearning is tied to the intellectual origins of Lewin andPaget. [19]Figure 1: Kolb’s Cycle of Experiential Learning [20]While the learning cycle can begin at any point, thelearning process often begins with a person carryingout a particular action and then seeing the effect of theaction. The second step is to understand the effects sothat if presented with the same action the learner wouldbe able to anticipate the action that would follow. Stepthree involves understanding the general principles thatthe action involved. The last step is involved with theimplementation of the action.The way this is applied in simulation is by introducinga new skill such as difficult airway management toparticipants. The participant is allowed to attemptintubation or ventilation in a safe environment whereactual patient safety is not compromised. Theparticipant is allowed to experience a potentially lifethreatening condition that they may not yet have beenexposed to in the clinical environment. They are able tovisually observe what occurs to the manikin whenairway oedema and laryngospasm are applied. Fromthis there is reflection and discussion with a clinicalexpert on how to manage the situation. By facilitating asafe environment for the learner to try out and practicenew skills, the learner is able to develop a plan of
action as to how they would manage a difficult airwaysituation, and be able to anticipate what their next stepwould be in the management of the patient in theclinical environment.2.It is Gagné’s work which has been a predominant forcein instructional design.INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNInstructional design is defined by Berger and Kam [1]as ‘the systematic development of instructionalspecifications using learning and instructional theory toensure the quality of instruction. It is the process ofanalysis of learning needs and goals and thedevelopment of a delivery system to meet those needs.It includes development of instructional materials andactivities; and tryout and evaluation of all instructionand learner activities.”2.1events of instruction and their corresponding cognitiveprocesses.History of Instructional DesignAt the time instruction design was in its infancy, thebehaviourist’s approach to learning was veryprominent. With the advent of the Second World War,there was a great need to train hundreds of thousandsof military personnel in a short space of time. Prior tothis, the use of specialised teaching machines was usedas a method of standardising instruction and training.This method was used in conjunction with the earlierwork undertaken by Ralph Tyler on learningobjectives, allowing for vast numbers of personnel tobe trained in a standardised manner and in a relativelyshort time frame. It is thought that the heavyinvestment of the government into training, researchand development was credited with the USA’s victoryin 1945. This in turn led to further research anddevelopment into the underpinnings or learningcognition and instruction. [14]Following the post war boom, the 1950’s brought aboutfurther development in theoretical models of learning.Exponents at the time included Skinner and Bloom.The general systems theory of biological interactionsattributed to Ludwig von Bertalanffy, was combinedtogether with Bloom’s Taxonomy [13] and allowed fordevelopment of a systems approach to instructional andorganisational development. Planners were then able tomatch content and delivery of instruction fororganisations, individuals and groups. With the adventof the space race, the focus shifted from programdevelopment to entire curriculum development. In1962 Robert Glaser combined the works of previousresearchers and introduced the concept of instructionaldesign. He developed a model which linked theanalysis undertaken about the learner to the design anddevelopment of the required curriculum.[14].During this time Robert Mager spent considerable timedeveloping performance objectives that could bedescribed in measurable terms. He suggested that theyshould contain the behaviour sought, the condition andlimitations under which the behaviour is undertaken.This has became known as Criterion ReferencedInstruction.[7] Robert Gagné further developed thework of Bloom and introduced the concept of nineTable 1: Gagné’s Nine Instructional Events [6]1. Gaining attention (reception)2. Informing learners of the objectives (expectancy)3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)6. Eliciting performance (responding)7.Providing feed back ( reinforcement)8. Assessing performance (retrieval)9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalisation)David Ausubel in the 1960’s also posed a theory basedon how individuals learn large amounts of theory fromverbal or textual presentations. According to Ausubel[20] ‘the primary process in learning is subsumption inwhich new material is related to relevant ideas in theexisting cognitive structure on a substantive, nonverbal basis. Cognitive structures represent the residueof all learning experiences; forgetting occurs becausecertain details get integrated and lose tier individualidentity.’Since the 1950 variety of models of instructionaldesign have been developed. These include ADDIEDick and Carey [9]. Hannifen and Peck, Knirk andGustafson, Jerrold Kemp,and Gerlach & Ely to name afew. [3]2.2Phases of Instructional DesignAlthough many instructional design models exist, theyall contain five generic phases. These are 1. Analyse, 2.Design, 3. Develop, 4. Implement, and 5. Evaluate.These phases provide dynamic and flexible guidelineswhich are used for effective and efficient instruction.This is also known as the ADDIE Model [15]Figure 2: Instructional Design Phases [2]Analysis is the phase where the problem is identified,defined and solutions posed.[21],[2] In the context ofsimulation, the purpose of this phase is to determinewhat the learner or participant must know or do in theclinical setting.The design phase uses the information gleaned fromanalysis and allows for a plan or strategy to take place.[21],[2] It is here that the goals determined during the
analysis phase are expanded upon. The purpose of thisphase is to define the information from which theinstruction is developed. In other words what do wewant the participant accomplish during their time in thesimulator room.Development expands upon the analysis and designstages. It is during this phase that the lesson plans andlesson materials are generated. It is here that themethods of instruction including all media which willbe used are chosen. Any supporting documentationrequired is also generated. [21],[2] Media used mayinclude high or low fidelity patient simulators, part tasktrainers software packages used for computer basedinstruction, audio visual media such as videos,scenarios and educational material used for handouts,training or facilitator guides.Many models of instructional design have beendeveloped suitable for various instructional purposesand by differing levels of expertise of instructionaldesigners. Each model will also be discussed for itrelevance for use in simulation,Figure 3: Dick and Cary Design Model [3]Dick and Carey’s model is one which would besuitable for use in the simulation environment. It is astraight forward linear process which allows astructured flow to the development of instruction. Byidentifying entry behaviours and skills of participant’sdetailed scenarios are able to be developed. This modeldoes not require a formal needs analysis to beperformed, but instead allows for the knowledge andskills of particular attending group to be analysed.Criterion referencing [6] allows for the instructionalobjectives to be developed from what is required of theparticipant in the clinical environment. From these, ascenario is able to be developed or modified to suit thelevel of expertise of the group. The type and format ofthe simulation is also decided upon. This can involvepart task trainers, low fidelity or high fidelity patientsimulators, or may even take the form or a workshop orpause and discuss scenario. The delivery method isbased on the objectives and the instructional goals.Formative evaluation should be undertaken followingeach stage. A pilot scenario is run to ensure that thegoals and objectives are met. Modifications toscenarios also take place. Summative evaluation isundertaken following the pilot and allows areas forchange to be highlighted prior to the establishment ofthe program.2.3.12.3.2Implementation is the actual delivery of the instructionto the learners. It is during this phase that effective andefficient delivery of the material must support thelearning outcomes and promote the transfer ofknowledge and associated skills to the learner orparticipant. [21],[2]The final phase of the ADDIE involves evaluation.Evaluation measures the efficiency, effectiveness,value and worth of the instruction. Evaluation mustalso occur during the instructional design process, aswell as following the implementation phase. Aformative evaluation takes place between each phaseand a summative evaluation measures the overalleffectiveness of the instruction. The formativeevaluations allow the instruction to be improved beforethe final version is implemented. [21],[2]2.3Models of Instructional DesignThe Dick and Carey Design ModelDick and Carey Model [9] involves all of the phasesdescribed previously in the ADDIE model,commencing with identification of instructional goalsand finishes with summative evaluation. This model issuitable for a variety of context areas including primaryand secondary schools as well as business andgovernment uses. It is also adaptable for a variety ofusers ranging from novice to expert, as the step by stepdescriptions aid with progress through the model.The Hannifen Peck Design ModelThe Hannifen Peck Design Model [3] differs from thatof the Dick and Carey model in that it uses a threephase approach. Phase one involves a needs assessmentbeing performed. This is followed by a design phase,and phase three where the development andimplementation of the instruction are performed. Allphases include a process of evaluation.This is suitable for simulation. The needs analysisdefines the goals and objectives of the program. Thedesign of the program is based upon the findings fromthe needs analysis. The development part of stage threeinvolves how the program will be undertaken andimplementation is the actual running of the program.Evaluation and revision are a continual process .Thismodel is one that can be used by an experienced orbeginning instructional designer.
Figure 4: Hannifin Peck Design Model [3]2.3.4The Knirk and Gustafson Design ModelThe Knirk and Gustafson Design model [3] is a threestage process which involves problem determination,design and development. Problem determinationinvolves the identification of a problem and the settingof goals. Development of objectives and strategyspecifications are included in the design stage.Development is where the materials are developed.This model differs from the three stage Hannifin andPeck model in that there are individual processes orsteps involved with each stage. This model is also goodfor simulation use, in particular that of scenariodevelopment as the stages lend themselves to that ofsoftware development. Again it is a model which canbe used by novices or expert designers.2.3.6The Gerlach-Ely Design Model [3] is a prescriptivemodel that is well suited to primary, secondary andhigher education sectors. The model includes str
2. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN Instructional design is defined by Berger and Kam [1] as ‘the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the process of analysis of learning needs and goals and
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 63-81 Learning Objectives 63 Key Terms 63 Role Theories 65 Motivational Theories 67 Learning Theories 69 Cognitive Theories 73 Symbolic Interaction Theories 75 Socio-Cultural Theories 77 Evolutionary Theories 78 Summary and review 80 review QueStionS 81 4. SELF AND IDENTITY 82-107
mind, I like instructional design and technology (IDT). This term, which has been employed by one of the professional organizations in our field (Professors of Instructional Design and Technol-ogy), directly refers to the key concepts men-tioned earlier-instructional design and instructional technology (i.e., instructional media).
May 26, 2021 · instructional design. IDD 610 Instructional Design (3 credit hours): Instructional Design is a project-based course that includes step-by-step strategies to create instruction using design models, instructional strategies, and technology applications. Learners will study the processes of analysis, design,
2 S o c i a l T h e o r i e s Theories can be used to study society—millions of people in a state, country, or even at the world level. When theories are used at this level they are referred to as macro-level theories, theories which best fit the study of massive numbers of people (typically Conflict and Functional theories).
181 Chapter 11 Design Models and Learning Theories for Adults Darryl L. Sink In This Chapter Q De!ne ISD models. Q Learn how to expand ISD models to meet current delivery systems. Q Understand how learning theories in"uence instructional design. When an organization needs training solutions, the instructional designer must un- derstand the business and individual needs that underlie the .
The scientific method is the logical scheme used by scientists searching for answers to the ques-tions posed within science. Scientific method is used to produce scientific theories, including both scientific meta-theories (theories about theories) as well as the theories used to design the tools for .
Instructional Systems at Florida State University, draws helpful dis-tinctions in his 2001 article on the history of instructional design and technology: “Instructional Tech-nology is the problem analysis, solu-tion design, development, imple-mentation, management, and eval-uation of instructi
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