Tanzanian Female Students' Perspectives On The Relevance .

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,ŽŵĞ ĐŽŶŽŵŝĐƐ ĂŶĚ ƌĂĨƚ ƚƵĚŝĞƐ ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ZĞƉŽƌƚƐ ϯϰ ,ĂŶŶĂ WŽƐƚŝͲ ŚŽŬĂƐ dĂŶnjĂŶŝĂŶ &ĞŵĂůĞ ƚƵĚĞŶƚƐ͛ WĞƌƐƉĞĐƚŝǀĞƐ ŽŶ ƚŚĞ ZĞůĞǀĂŶĐĞ ŽĨ ĞĐŽŶĚĂƌLJ ĚƵĐĂƚŝŽŶ ĐĂĚĞŵŝĐ ŝƐƐĞƌƚĂƚŝŽŶ ƚŽ ďĞ ƉƵďůŝĐůLJ ĚŝƐĐƵƐƐĞĚ ďLJ ĚƵĞ ƉĞƌŵŝƐƐŝŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ &ĂĐƵůƚLJ ŽĨ ĞŚĂǀŝŽƵƌĂů ĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ Ăƚ ƚŚĞ hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ ŽĨ ,ĞůƐŝŶŬŝ͕ ŝůƚĂǀƵŽƌĞŶƉĞŶŐĞƌ ϯ ͕ ƵĚŝƚŽƌŝƵŵ ϭϬϳ͕ ŽŶ &ƌŝĚĂLJ͕ ϭϯƚŚ :ƵŶĞ ϮϬϭϰ͕ Ăƚ ϭϮ Ž͛ĐůŽĐŬ͘ ϮϬϭϰ hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ ŽĨ ,ĞůƐŝŶŬŝ &ĂĐƵůƚLJ ŽĨ ĞŚĂǀŝŽƵƌĂů ĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ ĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚ ŽĨ dĞĂĐŚĞƌ ĚƵĐĂƚŝŽŶ

Supervisors:ProfessorPäivi PalojokiUniversity of HelsinkiAdjunct ProfessorElina LehtomäkiUniversity of JyväskyläPre-examiners:ProfessorColleen McLaughlinUniversity of Sussex, United KingdomProfessorJuha SuorantaUniversity of TampereCustos:ProfessorPäivi PalojokiUniversity of HelsinkiOpponent:ProfessorColleen McLaughlinUniversity of Sussex, United Kingdom Hanna Posti-Ahokas and original publicationsCover image: Katti Ka BatemboCover design: Timo OvaskaISBN 978-952-10-9890-1 (pbk)ISBN 978-952-10-9891-8 (pdf)ISSN L 1798-713XISSN 1798-713XUnigrafia2014

ABSTRACTSecondary education is a critical concern and focus of policy interest in Tanzania aswell as throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. The rapid expansion and deteriorating qualityof the secondary education sector has raised questions regarding the social and personal relevance of the existing system. This study explores and presents the voices andperspectives of female students concerning critical policy issues in the development ofsecondary education in Tanzania. The study analyses how students’ perspectives cancomplement and contrast with both the national and international policy approach tothe development of secondary education. Using a critical approach, the study focuseson the experiences, plans and aspirations of female students, who are an underrepresented and under-performing group in post-primary education. The study analysesthe social and cultural contexts that influence the advancement of girls and youngwomen and which motivate them to pursue further education. The conceptual framework is drawn from theories on future orientation and on the transition to adulthood.Student voice research is applied and explored as a strategy to present the students’perspectives so that they could be included in policy dialogue from which they havepreviously been excluded.The personal relevance of education in the lives and future orientation of 100Tanzanian female secondary students living in the city of Dar es Salaam was analysedusing qualitative methods aiming at giving students voice. Data were collected through1) empathy-based stories and 2) a semi-structured qualitative questionnaire focusing onthe plans, experiences and future orientation of students enrolled in lower-secondaryeducation. The realised transitions from lower-secondary to upper-secondary educationwere followed up through 3) individual interviews (n 7). Finally, 4) a policy text analysis was conducted to reflect the critical issues brought up by students against the documented policy articulations.The results of the study emphasise the importance of personal effort and learningstrategies for advancement in education in students’ thinking. During secondary education, and particularly the transition from the lower- to upper-secondary level, the family is a critical enabling and constraining context for female students’ advancement.Peers, educated seniors and religious groups also provide significant support to students, with school-related factors playing only a marginal role in the students’ considerations. Secondary education is given both instrumental and intrinsic value by thestudents, who want to continue education beyond lower-secondary school in order toreach their personal and professional goals. Education is considered a key for the transition to adulthood and to gaining a good life.The study contributes to discussions on the relational nature of aspirations, future orientation and youth transitions. Experiences with a student-centred approachshow how research can be used to voice female students’ perspectives on critical poli-

cy concerns. The study concludes that the students’ perspectives provide complementary and contesting views to development of Tanzanian secondary education. Furtherresearch utilising student-centred methodologies and student voice is encouraged toinclude students’ perspectives in the dialogue on the development of education in Tanzania and elsewhere.Key words: relevance, student voice, secondary education, Tanzania, Sub-SaharanAfrica

TIIVISTELMÄTansaniassa ja monissa muissa Saharan eteläpuolisen Afrikan maissa toisen asteenkoulutus on keskeinen huolenaihe ja poliittisen huomion kohde. Toisen asteenkoulutuksen nopea laajentuminen ja koulutuksen heikentynyt laatu kyseenalaistavatnykyisten järjestelmien sosiaalisen ja henkilökohtaisen relevanssin. Tässätutkimuksessa selvitetään naisopiskelijoiden näkökulmia koulutuksen merkityksestä jatuodaan esiin heidän äänensä koulutuksen kehittämiseksi Tansaniassa. Tytöt ja naisetovat heikommin edustettuina toisen asteen koulutuksessa, ja heidän koulumenestyksensä on poikia heikompaa. Kriittiseen tutkimusotteeseen nojautuen tutkimuskeskittyy naisopiskelijoiden kokemuksiin, suunnitelmiin ja tavoitteisiin. Tutkimuksentavoitteena on tuottaa tietoa, kuinka opiskelijoiden näkökulmat täydentävät kansallisiaja kansainvälisiä koulutuspoliittisia linjauksia, ja millaisia eroavuuksia onopiskelijoiden näkemyksissä ja linjauksissa Tarkastelemalla opiskelijoiden kokemuksiakartoitetaan sosiaalisia ja kulttuurisia tekijöitä, jotka vaikuttavat tyttöjen etenemiseenkoulutuksessa ja joiden perusteella he haluavat kouluttautua lisää. Teoreettinenviitekehys pohjautuu koulutuksen kriittiseen tutkimukseen, sekä tulevaisuusorientaatioja transitioteorioihin. Tutkimus painottaa opiskelijoiden ääntä ja tuo esiin tutkimuksenstrategisena mahdollisuutena sisällyttää opiskelijoiden näkemyksiä koulutuspoliittiseendialogiin ja koulutuksen kehittämiseen. Koulutuksen koettua relevanssia tutkittiinsadan Dar es Salaamissa koulua käyvän nuoren naisen elämässä ja tulevaisuusorientaatioissa. Laadullinen tutkimusaineisto kerättiin 1) eläytymistarinoilla, 2) laadullisella kyselyllä opiskelijoiden kokemuksista, suunnitelmista ja tulevaisuusorientaatiosta ja 3) yksilöiden (N 7) seurantahaastatteluilla. Lopuksi 4) opiskelijoiden esiintuomia kysymyksiä tarkasteltiin suhteessa keskeisiin toisen asteen koulutuksenkehittämistä ohjaaviin koulutuspoliittisiin atomanyritteliäisyydenjaopiskelutaitojen merkitys koulutuksessa etenemisessä. Toisen asteen koulutuksen aikana ja varsinkin 11. ja 12. opiskeluvuoden välisessä kriittisessä siirtymässä perheenkoetaan mahdollistavan siirtymä seuraavalle koulutusasteelle. Toisaalta perhe on myöskeskeinen este naisopiskelijoiden koulutuksessa etenemiselle. Opiskelutoverit, koulutetut aikuiset ja uskonnolliset vertaisryhmät tarjoavat merkittävää tukea opiskelijoille.Kouluun liittyvillä tekijöillä on opiskelijoiden ajattelussa hyvin pieni rooli.Koulutukselle annetaan sekä välineellinen arvo että itseisarvo. Tytöt haluavat kouluttautua lisää saaavuttaakseen henkilökohtaiset ja ammatilliset tavoitteensa. Kouluttautuminen nähdään avaimena aikuistumiseen ja hyvään elämään.Tutkimus lisää teoreettista ymmärrystä nuorten tavoitteiden, tulevaisuusorientaation ja transitioiden relationaalisuudesta. Opiskelijoiden näkökulmattäydentävät keskeisiä koulutuspoliittisia linjauksia ja osoittavat opiskelijakeskeisentutkimusnäkökulman hyödyllisyyden. Opiskelijoiden kriittisiin poliittisiin kysymyksiin

tuomat näkökulmat osoittavat opiskelijakeskeisen tutkimusnäkökulman hyödyntämisenmahdollisuudet. Johtopäätöksenä voi todeta, että opiskelijoiden näkökulmat tarjoavattäydentävää tietoa koulutuksen kehittämiseen Tansaniassa. Tämän perusteella jatkotutkimus, jossa hyödynnetään opiskelijakeskeisiä menetelmiä, on tarpeellinen lisäkoulutuspoliittiseen dialogiin.Asiasanat: koulutuksen relevanssi, opiskelijoiden ääni, toisen asteen koulutus,Tansania, Saharan eteläpuoleinen Afrikka

MUHTASARIElimu ya sekondari imejaa umuhimu unaogusa mioyo, vilevile ni kiini cha shauku lakutoa mwelekeo wa sera Tanzania na Afrika Kusini mwa Sahara. Kupanuka kwa kasina kudorora kwa ubora wa sekta ya elimu ya sekondari kumeibua maswali kuhusianana maana halisi na umuhimu wa mfumo uliopo kijamii na kibinafsi. Utafiti huuunachungua na kuwasilisha sauti na mitazamo ya wanafunzi wa kike kuhusu masualamuhimu kisera katika uendelezaji wa elimu ya sekondari Tanzania. Vilevileunachanganua mitazamo ya wanafunzi inavyoweza kushamirishana na kutofautiana namwenendo wa kisera kitaifa na kimataifa kuhusu maendeleo ya elimu ya sekondari.Kwa kutumia mbinu makinifu, utafiti huu umezingatia uzoefu, mipango, na azma yawanafunzi wa kike kusonga mbele, kwani kundi lao lina uwakilishi mdogo, pia hupatamatokeo hafifu wanapohitimu elimu ya msingi. Pia utafiti huu unachanganuamazingira ya kijamii na kitamaduni yanayowashawishi na kuwahamasisha wasichanana vijana wa kike kusonga mbele ili wafanikiwe kuendelea na elimu ya juu. Mfumowa kidhana, kujenga wazo la kitafiti, umetokana na nadharia zinazogusia mwelekeo wasiku zijazo na mpito kuingia utu uzima. Utafiti wenye kuhusisha kuwasikilizawanafunzi umetumiwa kama mkakati wa kufikisha mitazamo yao ili wajumuishwe,kinyume na hapo awali, kwenye mjadala wa kisera.Maana binafsi ya elimu maishani na mwelekeo wa siku zijazo kwa wanafunzi100 wa kike wa kitanzania wa shule za sekondari waishio jijini Dar es Salaamilichanganuliwa kwa kutumia mtindo wa utafiti stahilifu ili kuwapatia wanafunzi fursaya kujisemea. Data zilikusanywa kupitia 1) simulizi za uelewa wa maono na 2) dodosomuundo-nusu zilizojikita kwenye mipango, uzoefu, na mwelekeo wa siku zijazo wawanafunzi wa elimu ya sekondari ngazi ya kawaida. Wanafunzi saba waliofaulukujiunga na elimu ya juu ya sekondari walifuatiliwa kupitia 3) mahojiano binafsi (n 7,kitakwimu). Hatimaye, 4) uchanganuzi wa maandiko ya kisera uliendeshwa kuashiriamasuala nyeti yaliyoibuliwa na wanafunzi dhidi ya matamko rasmi kwenye nyaraka zasera.Matokeo ya utafiti huu yanakazia umuhimu wa juhudi binafsi na mikakati yakujifunza ili kuleta maendeleo ya elimu kwenye fikira za wanafunzi. Kipindi chote chaelimu ya sekondari, hususani mpito kuingia ngazi ya juu sekondari, familia na hadhiyake ni kiwezesha muhimu sana au kizingiti kwa mwanafunzi wa kike kusonga mbele.Rika moja, wakubwa walioelimika na makundi kwenye asasi za kidini huchangiapakubwa kuwategemeza wanafunzi, huku vipengele vinavyohusiana na shulevikichangia kwa mbali kwenye nadhari za wanafunzi. Elimu ya sekondariinathaminiwa kama nyenzo muhimu ifaayo, na kiasili kama hazina halisi. Elimuinachukuliwa kuwa ufunguo wa mpito wa kuingia utu uzima, hatimaye maisha mazuri.Hivyo, utafiti huu unachangia kwenye mijadala inayogusia kiini cha shauku lakutaka kusonga mbele na kufaulu, mwelekeo wa siku zijazo, na mapito ya vijana.

Uzoefu uliotokana na mlengo unaohusisha wanafunzi waonesha utafiti unavyowezakutumiwa kuwasilisha mitazamo ya wanafunzi wa kike kuhusu masuala muhimukisera.Hatimaye, utafiti huu unahitimisha kwamba mitazamo ya wanafunzihuwasilisha maoni yenye kushamirishana, na hata kutofautiana, kuhusu maendeleo yaelimu ya sekondari ya kitanzania. Utafiti zaidi wenye kutumia methodolojiazinazozingatia kuhusisha wanafunzi na sauti zao wapendekezwa ili kujumuishamitazamo yao kwenye mjadala unaohusu maendeleo ya elimu Tanzania nakwingineko.Maneno maalum: sauti ya wanafunzi, elimu ya sekondari, Afrika Kusini mwa Sahara,Tanzania.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe common Tanzanian saying “Elimu ni ufunguo wa maisha” (Education is the keyto life) is certainly true in my personal and professional life. At this significant milestone in my professional journey as an educationalist, I clearly see how education hasbeen the key to accessing new opportunities and to opening an inspiring and rewardingpath that I hope to continue following for the rest of my life. The key of my doctoraleducation has opened doors to several inspiring scholars who have contributed to mythinking and challenged it and thus increased the quality of my work. These encountershave made me a strong believer in the power of sharing and collaboration in academicwork. My greatest thanks go to my supervisors, Professor Päivi Palojoki and AdjunctProfessor Elina Lehtomäki. You both have certainly opened many new doors for methrough the numerous references and recommendations you have written and the jointprojects and people you have introduced me to. My sincere thanks to Päivi for sharingyour creative ideas on qualitative research in education and for your energetic supporton practical and academic matters. Elina, thank you for taking me on board in yourFinnish-Tanzanian research project and making sure that our work continues despitethe changing contexts and working conditions. Your collegiality has taught me a greatdeal about how we can all improve as scholars through working together. Your experience and advice concerning intercultural collaboration have been most valuable. I alsoextend my gratitude to Professors Colleen McLaughlin and Juha Suoranta for theircareful pre-examination of my dissertation.During the initial stages of my research, Professor Emerita Terttu Tuomi-Gröhnencouraged me and provided guidance and helpful questions, which were necessary fora good start. Special thanks go to Professor Eustella Bhalalusesa, Dean of the School ofEducation at Dar es Salaam University at the time and advisor for our research projectEducated Girls and Women in Tanzania, for your support in handling the formalitiesand for the knowledgeable advice on research and in cultural matters. Alongside myofficial supervisors, Professor Paul Ilsley was an important and demanding, but supporting, mentor throughout the process. During your seminars, I was forced to thinkthrough the fundamental issues of my research. Thank you so much for all your adviceand continuous support. Professor Kaija Turkki, thank you for encouraging me to lookat the bigger picture through our work together at the International Federation of HomeEconomics.Much of what I have learnt about research is the result of the collegial cooperation. Work assignments, maternity leaves, fieldwork periods and our homes being indifferent towns and countries prevented us from regularly working together in the samelocation. Despite this, our communication has been consistent throughout the years.Elina, Mari-Anne and Magreth, thank you for having been there for our common causeand for each other when needed. I feel privileged to know you and hope to have moreopportunities to work together in the years to come. Magreth, a special thanks for your

commitment during my data collection. Mari-Anne, I am grateful to you for being atrusted partner, both in the professional and personal struggles related to doctoral studies and research. Wende Luvinga Heinoja and John Adicka have been important partners in the struggle to achieve a mediation of cultures, and I wish to thank both of you.Over the years, I have been fortunate to work closely with colleagues from theDepartment of Teacher Education, University of Helsinki. Hille and Päivi, thank youfor including me in your research and also giving me the opportunity to teach in thedepartment. This surely made my transition from full-time doctoral studies to the following stage a lot smoother. I also wish to thank my fellow doctoral students, many ofwhom have since become doctors and are also colleagues at present, for sharing andcaring: Seija, Salla, Anne, Sari, Silpa Maria, Kristiina, Sanna, Anna-Leena, Ilona, Heidi, Mbu, Pia, Kaisu, Markus, Marianna and Stefan.In Tanzania, I was privileged to work with educationalists from whom I learnt agreat deal. Thank you Rest Lasway, Denis Kapama, Professor Aneth Komba, Dr KitilaMkumbo, Edith Mpinzile and colleagues at the University of Dar es Salaam. My sincere gratitude also goes to the teachers in the five research schools for your assistance.My warmest thanks go to the hundred impressive girls and young women who madethis research possible by their willingness to participate in my study by sharing theirtime and thoughts. I hope your education will be a valuable key in your lives!My research activities were funded by the Academy of Finland, the Finnish Cultural Foundation, the Suninen & Troberg Foundation, the Jenny and Antti WihuriFoundation, the Emil Aaltonen Foundation, the University of Helsinki and the FinnishConcordia Fund. Thank you for the financial support that has enabled me to work onmy research full-time, to collect vast qualitative data in Tanzania and to participate inconferences and seminars. Warm thanks to the city library of Hamina for providing mewith a comfortable office and to the Rodnik ladies for feeding me and keeping mecompany.Without family, in its wider definition, this research would not have been possible. I wish to thank my extended family, including my parents, Maritta and Jokke, together with Leena, Hilkka, Tapio, Laura, Markku, Rahel, the two Eeva’s and Elina forlooking after my children in Finland and Tanzania and for all the other practical andemotional support. You and many dear friends have always stood beside me in mypersonal and professional struggles. Thank you Hilda and Helvi for coming into mylife and for making me a mother during my research years. And finally, my greatestthanks go to my husband Heikki. I am deeply grateful for your commitment and unconditional support for my work throughout our years together and the years to come. In Hamina, April 2014,Hanna Posti-Ahokas

List of original publicationsThis thesis is based on the following publications:IPosti-Ahokas, H. 2013. Empathy-based stories capturing the voice of femalesecondary school students in Tanzania. International Journal ofQualitative Studies in Education, 26(10), .IIPosti-Ahokas, H. & Okkolin, M. A. (accepted ). Enabling and constrainingfamily: Young women building their educational paths in Tanzania.Journal of Community, Work and Family.IIIPosti-Ahokas, H. & Palojoki, P. 2014. Navigating transitions to adulthoodthrough secondary education: Aspirations and value of education forTanzanian girls. Journal of Youth Studies, 17(5), 664–681 doi:10.1080/13676261.2013.853871.IVPosti-Ahokas, H. & Lehtomäki, E. 2014. The significance of student voice:Female students’ interpretations of failure in Tanzanian secondaryeducation. Gender and Education.doi: 10.1080/09540253.2014.907392In the text, the publications are referred to as sub-studies by their roman numerals.

Contents1 Introduction . 12 Youth transitions, gender and secondary education in the Global South . 32.1 Contextual and relational transitions . 32.2 The role and relevance of secondary education in youth transitions . 72.3 Gender equality in education . 92.4 Development of secondary education in Tanzania . 133 Critical research approach and student voice . 193.1 Critical research tradition in education . 193.2 Counter-colonial and counter-hegemonic approaches to the study of educationand development. 203.3 Student voice as a critical research practice . 244 Research aims and questions .

MUHTASARI Elimu ya sekondari imejaa umuhimu unaogusa mioyo, vilevile ni kiini cha shauku la kutoa mwelekeo wa sera Tanzania na Afrika Kusini mwa Sahara. Kupanuka kwa kasi na kudorora kwa ubora wa sekta ya elimu ya sekondari kumeibua maswali kuhusiana na maana halisi na umuhimu w

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