30 - National Institute Of Open Schooling

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MODULE - 5BiotechnologyEmerging Areasin Biology30NotesBIOTECHNOLOGYAt home we prepare food items such as yoghurt (curd), cake, bread, idli and dosaby the action of microorganisms, such as the bacteria and fungi. Brewers use yeast(fungus) to make beer. Antibiotics such as penicillin are obtained from certain fungi.Nowadays, biological processes such as fermentation by microorganisms is beingused in industry on a commercial scale for making food, drinks, drugs (medicines)and industrial chemicals. Modern techniques in biotechnology are programmingmicroorganisms for this task. In this lesson, you will learn about use of microorganismsin industries.OBJECTIVESAfter completing this lesson, you will be able to:zappreciate the importance of biotechnology in human welfare;zexplain the use of biotechnology in industry;zlist the microbes used in the industry and the products manufactured throughtheir use;zexplain fermentation and outline the process of making alcohol by usingmicroorganisms;zdescribe the process of making yoghurt and cheese on a large scale;zexplain the contribution of microorganisms in making antibiotics and vaccines;zdefine genetic engineering and mention its utility;zdefine transgenic organisms, mention the steps in their production and cite afew examples of transgenic plants and animals;zexplain the process and importance of gene therapy;zexplain bioremediation and biopesticides.BIOLOGY293

MODULE - 5Emerging Areasin BiologyBiotechnology30.1 BIOTECHNOLOGYThe word biotechnology has come from two words, bios (meaning biology) andtechnology (meaning technological application). Thus biotechnology is defined asthe industrial application of living organisms and their biological processessuch as biochemistry, microbiology, and genetic engineering, in order to makebest use of the microorganisms for the benefit of mankind.Notes Biotechnology is applied in many areas to produce foods and medicines, in thedevelopment of new diagnostic tools, gene therapy, and DNA finger-printing forforensic purposes.30.1.1 Applications of Biotechnology1. Health and medicineFighting infectious diseases : Biotechnology is used extensively in the study ofinfectious diseases such as SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), andinfluenza. As a result more effective pharmaceuticals have been developed.Development of vaccines and antibiotics : Using technology, microorganisms areused to develop antibiotics and vaccines to cure diseases. For example, bacteriaBacillus polymysea is used to produce polymyxin B (antibiotic used to cure urinarytract infections), fungus Penicillium notatum is used to produce penicillin (used tocure pneumonia, and many other bacterial infections.)Treating genetic disorders : Disease can occur when genes become defective dueto mutations. With advancements in biotechnology, in the near future it will bepossible to use gene therapy to replace an abnormal or faulty gene with a normalcopy of the same gene. It may be used to treat ailments such as heart disease,inherited diseases such as SCID, and Thalassaemia.In forensic science : A lot of New techniques have been developed such as DNAfingerprinting, besides having a number of other applications which have facilitatedthe speedy identification of the criminals.2. EnvironmentCleaning up and managing the environment : Cleaning up the environment usingliving organisms is called bioremediation. Naturally occurring, as well as geneticallymodified microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi and enzymes are used to breakdown toxic and hazardous substances present in the environment.3. AgricultureBiotechnology has also made possible the production of crops improved diseaseresistan; herbicide-toleran and insecticide-resistan. Plants with improved nutritionalvalue for livestock have also been obtained through biotechnology.Control of pests : One application of biotechnology is in the control of insect pests.The genetic make-up of the pest is changed by causing some mutations. These pestsbecome sterile and do not reproduce further.294BIOLOGY

MODULE - 5BiotechnologyEmerging Areasin BiologyManufacturing and bio-processing : With the help of new biological techniquesit has become possible to grow, the plants that produce compounds for use indetergents, paints, lubricants and plastics on large scale.Food and drinks : Biotechnology, has also made the processing of foods and theirproducts easier. Preservation and storing of food for consumption later has becomeeasy and cheap with the help of biotechnology. Seedless grapes and seedless citrusfruits have been developed using biotechnology.Notes4. IndustryBiotechnology has been used in the industry to produce new products for humanconsumption. Food additives have been developed which help in the preservationof food. Microorganisms are used in the mass production of items such as cheese,yoghurt, and alcohol.30.1.2 Industrial Microorganisms and Their Industrial ProductsImportant microorganisms used in industries includezyeasts (fungi)zmoulds (fungi)zbacteriazfilamentous bacteria (actinomycetes)Microbes are used in the manufacture of several products. Some of these arezalcohol-containing beverageszyoghurt (curd)zproteinszantibiotics and monoclonal antibodieszvitamins, steroids and enzymeszbiogasThe progress in gene manipulation and genetic engineering has introducedthe use of cultured mammalian cells and ‘hybridomas’ in the industries.Hybridomas are created by fusion of cells belonging to organisms ofdifferent species.30.1.3 Production of Alcohol – Containing BeveragesFermentationFermentation is a process by which carbohydrates such as sugar areconverted into alcohol.yeast Ethyl alcohol Carbon-dioxide ATPGlucose enzymeYeast is capable of fermenting sugar to alcohol. Fermentation is an energyyielding process.In the mid nineteenth century, Louis Pasteur showed that fermentation by the yeastSaccharomyces cerevisiae yields beer and buttermilk. Presently yeast is being usedBIOLOGY295

MODULE - 5Emerging Areasin BiologyBiotechnologyon a large scale for brewery andbakery.Bakers use yeast to leaven (raise) Grape pressingdough to make bread. Yeast is alsogrown on molasses and is packed andsold. Yeast is used to raise cakes andSterilizationNotes bread while baking. YeastadditionAlcoholic beverages are manufacturedby fermentation of sugars by the yeast,Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It is called FermentationBrewer’s yeast. The source ofcarbohydrate fermented by yeast givesthe beverage its specific flavour. Forexample :–Wine is obtained by fermentationof grapes. Grapes are fermentedby S. cerevisiae and its solublesugars (glucose and fructose) areconverted into CO2 and ethylalcohol.–Fermentation is carried out in largetanks called bioreactors.–Barley malt is fermented to yieldbeer.Steps taken for fermentation(i) Fermenter or tank and thenutrient medium are sterilised bysteam under pressure (autoclave).Setting vatElimination ofcontaminantsAddition of desiredorganismsAlcohol productionfrom sugarsExcess yeastFermentationExcess yeast removalAgingDevelopment of finalwine bouquetBottlingFig 30.1 Obtaining wine from grapes byfermentation by Yeast(ii) The correct strain of yeast is selected.(iii) The yeast is inoculated into the medium. Inoculation can be done in two ways:(a) Yeast can be grown as a layer on the surface of nutrient medium. Thisis called support growth system.(b) Cells or mycelia are suspended in a liquid medium. This is calledsuspended growth system.(iv) Care is taken to maintain the right temperature, pH, oxygen and carbon-dioxideconcentration.(v) The medium is stirred and left to ferment.(vi) The sugar in the medium gets fermented by enzymes released by yeast.(vii) The fermented product is taken out (Fig. 30.1).296BIOLOGY

MODULE - 5BiotechnologySome alcohols manufactured by yeast fermentation are : Ethyl alcohol, butanol andglycerol. The same method also yields lactic acid and acetic acid (vinegar) by usingspecific bacteria.The yeast extract left after removal of the beverage can be used as animal feed.It is also a rich source of vitamins.Emerging Areasin BiologyNotesINTEXT QUESTIONS 30.11. Name three different kinds of microorganisms used in the manufacture ofindustrial products.2. Name three products obtained in industries by using microorganisms.3. Name two alcohols produced through fermentation by yeast.4. Name the two methods of inoculation of yeast in the medium.5. Match the items given in columns A with those given in column B.Column AColumn B1. Bioreactor(a) Butanol2. Steaming under pressure(b) Fermentation tank3. Alcohol(c) Autoclave30.2 YOGHURT AND CHEESE MAKINGAt home we add a bit of yoghurt (starter) to milk and it sets. The milk becomesyoghurt or curd due to the milk curdling enzymes released by the increasingpopulation of bacteria, Lactobacillus present in the starter. (Table 30.1) On acommercial scale, making of yoghurt as well as cheese utilises Rennet tablets forthis purpose. Rennin is the milk curdling enzyme obtained from the calf stomach.However, this method is popular any more.Whether by bacteria or by “rennin”, when milk is ‘curdled’, milk protein casein,separates from the liquid which is called whey. Lactobacillus convert lactose in themilk into lactic acid which lowers the pH. Lowered pH causes souring which isessential for preservation.Butter can be made by violently shaking (churning) sour milk. The fat globulesseparate and form butter. A starter culture of Streptococcus cremosis, and Leuconostocis added to the milk when butter, yoghurt or cheese are made.BIOLOGY297

MODULE - 5BiotechnologyEmerging Areasin BiologyTable 30.1 Fermenting microbes used for dairy productsFermented productNotesFermenting microorganismDescriptionYoghurtStreptococcus thermophilusand Lactobacillus bulgariansProduct made from low ornon-fat milk and stabiliserslike gelatin added.ButterLactococcus lactisCream is incubated till the desiredacidity is achieved followed by churning,washing and salting30.2.1 Microorganisms and antibioticsIn 1928, Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered that one microorganism caninhibit the growth of another organism. Selman Waksman 1942 coined the termantibiotic (anti: opposed to, biotic: living organism)Antibiotic is a substance produced by a microorganism such as bacteriaor fungi which inhibits the growth of another microorganism. Antibioticsare generally small molecules with a molecular weight less than 2000Da. They are not enzymes. The antibiotic interferes with the vitalmetabolic processes of the pathogenic bacterium and prevents its growthand reproduction.Wide-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibioticsModern medicines have found a specific antibiotic for almost every differentpathogen. Streptomyces bacterium yields some of the most widely used antibioticslike Chloramphenicol, Erythromycin, Tetracycline etc. These are called ‘broadspectrum antibiotics’ and can be used against more than one kind of pathogenicbacterium. Streptomycin and Penicillin are narrow spectrum antibiotics usedagainst few pathogenic bacteria.Drawbacks of antibioticsUse of antibiotics was a big step in curing infectious diseases which offered a safe,sure and relatively inexpensive cure. But even now we find many people sufferingfrom bacterial diseases. The reasons for this are:1. Some people are allergic to a particular antibiotic.2. Some disease causing bacteria undergo mutation and become resistant to aparticular antibiotic to which they were sensitive earlier.Sources of antibioticsSome of the common antibiotics and their source organisms are given in table30.2.298BIOLOGY

MODULE - 5BiotechnologyTable 30.2 Major antibiotics and their sourcesAntibiotic linStreptomyces spStreptomyces auriefaciensS. venezuelaeS. griseusS. griseusCephalosporium acremoniumPenicillium chrysogenumEmerging Areasin BiologyNotes30.3 VACCINATIONIn 1790, Edward Jenner observed that milkmaids did not get smallpox as they wereexposed to a milder disease cowpox. Jenner infected a boy with cowpox germs andafter two months with small pox germs. The boy did not get small pox. Jennerproposed that if mild or attenuated (weakened) germs were introduced into the body,they would not cause the disease. He gave the term vaccine (latin vacca : cow)or vaccination, for the weakened germ and its protective inoculation.Today, the principle of vaccination has been extended to prevent attack of manydiseases. When vaccines are made from attenuated disease causing bacteria, theyare termed as “first generation vaccines”. The “second generation vaccines” havebeen produced by genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology about whichyou shall study in the next section. Second generation vaccines for Hepatitis B virusand Herpes virus are already in use. Vaccines synthesised from chemicals are called“third generation vaccines”.30.4 PRODUCTION OF VITAMINSVitamins are nutrients required in very small amounts for essential metabolicreactions in the body. They are produced using biotechnology. Vitamin C was thefirst vitamin to be produced during a fermentation process by using bacteria. B12or cyanocobalamin and B2 or Riboflavin were obtained from liver extract. Theproduction of B12 involved fermentation by propionic bacteria. In nature B2 is foundin cereals, vegetables and yeast but the yield of B2 can be enhanced hundred to threehundred fold by using microbes.30.5 PRODUCTION OF BIOGASBiogas is a new conventional source of fuel. Its use can save fossil fuel (coal,kerosene, and petrol) which are fast getting depleted.Biogas is made from organic waste including faecal matter. Cowdung or faeces havelignocellulose. The energy used as fuel comes from methane (CH4). Cowdung formsthe primary source of biogas. In India cowdung is available in plenty in villages andsmall scale methane generating plants have been designed.BIOLOGY299

MODULE - 5BiotechnologyEmerging Areasin BiologyAny biodegradable substance (which can be decomposed by bacteria) can befermented anaerobically (in the absence of oxygen) by methane-producing(methanogenic) bacteria. Cowdung or faeces are collected and put in a biogasdigester or fermenter ( a large vessel in which fermentation can take place). A seriesof chemical reactions occur in the presence of methanogenic bacteria (CH4generating bacteria) leading to the production of CH4 and CO2.While generating biogas, few parameters have to be taken into account. These areNotesas follows:1. Fermentation should be in an anaerobic environment and no free oxygen shouldbe present.2. pH in the fermenter should be close to neutral, around 6.8 to 7.63. Methanogenic bacteria are to be used for fermentation.Several kinds of reactors have been designed. One side of the reactor is for input,that is, for introducing cowdung or faecal matter into the reactor. Whiel other sideof the reactor has an outlet for removal of biogas: The material is left behind is calledslurry. The gas gets stored above the slurry level. Slurry forms excellent manure.Advantages of biogas1. Biogas is a fuel used to cook food, and light lamps.2. Slurry left after biogas production forms a soil conditioner (manure).3. Biogas is much cheaper than LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) which wecommonly use these days in our houses.INTEXT QUESTIONS 30.21. Name the bacterium responsible for curdling of milk.2. Who discovered antibiotic?.3. What do you mean by second generation vaccines?.4. Which was the first vitamin to be produced by fermentation?.5. Which bacteria cause the production of biogas?.30.6 GENETIC ENGINEERINGAn engineer fixes a machine to make it work efficiently. Body is like a machine andgenes, the nucleotide sequences in DNA have the information for products to runthis machine. With progress in molecular biology, techniques have been developedby which a scientist can now manipulate genetic material, replace genes or replace300BIOLOGY

Biotechnologygene products in the body, make identical copies of these genes and store them ina gene library. This is called genetic engineering.MODULE - 5Emerging Areasin Biology30.6.1 Importance of genetic engineeringYou know that diabetes mellitus is a genetic disorder. A diabetic patient lacks agene which has the information for synthesis of insulin, therefore such a personcannot secrete insulin. Take another example. A person suffering from Thalassemialacks the gene for haemoglobin and can survive only through frequent blood Notestransfusions. A person suffering from sickle cell anemia has an altered gene whoseproduct makes the red blood corpuscles abnormal on exposure to oxygen becausethey contain faulty haemoglobin.Humans suffering from genetic disorders such as those cited above have now hopein genetic engineering. Genetically engineered copies of DNA can be produced andstored in gene libraries to be used when required.In the previous sections of this lesson you have studied about the use of microbesto produce various products on a commercial scale. Currently bacteria are beinggenetically manipulated to act as biological factories to produce various kinds ofproteins such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies through genetic engineering.Researchers have isolated genes which can be used to produce effective vaccines.Workers have also developed bacterial strains, through genetic manipulation, whichcan degrade harmful environmental pollutants.30.6.2 Recombinant DNA technologyGenetic engineering may be defined as construction and utilisation of new DNAmolecules that have been engineered by recombinant DNA techniques. Thetechnique of genetic engineering is in the production of recombinant DNA.Recombinant DNA, as the name suggests, involves cutting a piece of original DNAand inserting in its place a different segment of DNA having desred characters. Therecombined or recomposed DNA is then copied multifold inside bacterial cells andstored in a gene library for use when required. The multiple copies of the gene aretermed cloned DNA or cloned genes.Causing genetic change by artificially manipulating DNA is geneticengineering.Clone is a group of genetically identical cells. Such cells are descendentsof a single cell. When a bacterium with recombinant DNA dividesseveral times, it provides a clone containing a specific segment of DNAfrom another species.The production of genetically identical individuals or genetic materialfrom a single cell is called cloning.Recombinant DNA technology resulted from the two discoveries made whileexperimenting with bacteria :(i) presence of plasmids or extra chromosomal DNA fragments in the bacterialcell which replicate along with bacterial DNA and can be used as a vector forcarrying foreign DNA.BIOLOGY301

MODULE - 5Emerging Areasin BiologyBiotechnology(ii) presence of specific restriction enzymes which attack and cut DNA at specificsites.30.6.3 Tools and steps in recombinant DNA technologyRecombinant DNA technology is a “cut and paste” technology. S

Biotechnology 294 BIOLOGY Notes MODULE - 5 Emerging Areas in Biology 30.1 BIOTECHNOLOGY The word biotechnology has come from two words, bios (meaning biology) and technology (meaning technological application). Thus biotechnology is defined as the industrial appli

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