Agrodok 10 - COnnecting REpositories
Agrodok 10Soya and other leguminouscropsRienke NieuwenhuisJoke Nieuwelink1
Agrodok 10Soya and other leguminous crops Agromisa Foundation, Wageningen, 2002.All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint,microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher.First edition: 2002Authors: Rienke Nieuwenhuis and Joke NieuwelinkEditors: Rienke Nieuwenhuis and Marten VoogdDesign: Ien KoTranslation: Sara van Otterloo-ButlerIllustrations: Barbera Oranje and Mamadi B. JabbiPrinted by: de Goede press, Wageningen, The NetherlandsISBN: 90-77073-28-0NUGI: 8352
ForewordThis Agrodok is based on a previous shorter edition, Soya. The text hasbeen extended to include more practical information on growing andprocessing soya and other legumes into nutritious food products. Wehave included other legumes so that the information in the book will beuseful in more areas.Soya is a legume with many good qualities, and it can be used toimprove farming systems. It can also be processed into products whichcontribute to the daily diet and to family income. In this new edition wedevote extra attention to this crop. There are also many areas howeverwhere soya cannot be cultivated, but other legumes do grow well andhave many of the same good qualities.This Agrodok is intended to help farmers and extension workers tomake choices that will work well under local conditions.3
Agrodok 10Soya and other leguminous cropsContents1Introduction622.12.2The importance of legumesLegumesSoya77933.13.23.33.4Cultivation requirements for legumesSuitable areasClimateVarieties and cultivarsSoil111113171944.14.24.34.4Integrating legumes into existing farming systemsLivestock keepingMixed/rotational cropping systems in AsiaMixed/rotational cropping systems in AfricaLabour requirements22242526275Cultivating soya5.1Storage of beans and seed selection5.2Nitrogen fixation5.3Plant density and sowing methods5.4Sowing period5.5No-tillage cropping5.6Weed control5.7Pests5.8Diseases5.9Harvesting legumes5.10Large-scale production in South America42929303234353537383839
66.16.26.3Soya: nutritious foodWhat is good nutrition?MalnutritionSoya and other legumes4040424577.17.27.3Soya in the daily dietGood storageHeat first!Preparation of meals and products4848484988.18.28.38.4RecipesSnacksMain coursesBread and bakingOther recipes55555658599Introducing soya at the local level61Appendix 1: Legumes63Appendix 2 : Inoculating soya with rhizobium65Appendix 3: Giving advice on inoculation69Further readingCultivation of soyaNutrition and recipes7171725
Agrodok 1011Soya and other leguminous cropsIntroductionMany farmers face urgent problems of making sure there is enoughfood for their families for the whole year and earning sufficient income.Population growth and the increasing size of cities and towns mean thatthe amount of land available to grow food for each family is decreasing.Yields are not always high and the prices of agricultural products aregenerally declining. The amount of money available to buy food if itcannot be grown, to provide housing, travel and medical costs is alsodecreasing. The costs of agriculture are rising; artificial fertilizers andother chemicals are becoming more expensive, while farmers are notable to increase the prices of their products. There is a shortage of foodboth in terms of quantity, but also quality: the amount of nutrients in foodthat children need to grow and adults to stay strong and healthy is oftentoo low.By growing legumes farmers can do something about these problems.Legumes take up nitrogen from the air and pass it on to the soil, therebyimproving soil fertility. The yields of crops grown on the same land afterthe legume crop will increase. In addition legumes are nutritious, andmay provide income opportunities. Products made from soya and otherlegumes can be eaten or sold.This Agrodok is intended for farmers who want to know more aboutlegumes and for extension workers who want to assist the farmers. Theanswers to the following questions can be found in this book: What are legumes? How can I cultivate them? What products can be made from soya and other legumes?6
The importance of legumes22Chapter 2The importance of legumesPlants that belong to the legume family (Leguminosae) have pods inwhich beans grow. Legumes possess an important characteristic, whichis their ability to bsorb nitrogen from the air. Many crops that are unableto do this are dependent on the nitrogen that is present in the soil. Mostsoils in tropical areas do not contain sufficient nitrogen, an importantnutrient. For this reason growing legumes (in addition to other staplecrops such as potatoes, maize and rice) is a good way for farmers intropical areas to enrich the soil. The legume crops also provide extrafood for the daily diet of both humans and animals.The nitrogen that the legume crop absorbs from the air is used for itsown growth and is stored in the root nodules. When the crop is harvested the roots are left in the ground, where they decompose, releasing thenitrogen into the soil. This nitrogen can then be used by the next cropthat is planted in the same field. The pods contain beans that are easy toprepare. Legumes must never be eaten raw. Nevertheless they have somany advantages that it is worthwhile growing and processing them.Soya beans are a legume that is very rich in nutrients and there are anumber of products that can only be made from soya. Soya beans andsoya products can also be sold and can therefore be a source of extraincome. This Agrodok about legumes focuses on soya for these reasons.2.1 LegumesLegume crops provide dried beans for human consumption and aregrown all over the world (see table 1). Some beans are a good sourceof oil (groundnuts and soya beans), others are good for cooking, eitheras whole beans or pulses or as split beans or peas. Some beans areground into flour which is used to prepare a number of foods. After thebeans have been harvested the crop remains make a good source ofanimal feed. They can also be dug into the soil so that they improve the7
Agrodok 10Soya and other leguminous cropsfertility of the soil. Some legume crops can be grown in combinationwith a grain crop, which helps to increase yields and soil fertility.Cowpeas are often grown together with millet or maize (Agrodok 2: SoilFertility Management).There are other legume crops that are especially suitable for greenmanure. The crop is sown and when it is fully grown it is ploughedunder without being harvested. However, because these crops do nothave direct economic returns it is more difficult to motivate farmers touse these. Finally there are legumes that make good ground cover.These are sown between the rows of a crop that does not cover thesoil, such as maize (Agrodok 2: Soil Fertility Management).U ses of legum e cropscrop combine with other crops to improve soil fertilitygreen manureground covercrop remains animal feed worked into the soil to improve soil fertilitybeans important source of vegetable oil cooked or eaten as pulses and split peas ground into flour for cooking8
The importance of legumesChapter 2T a b le 1 : W o r ld w id e p r o d u c tio n o f le g u m e s a s d r ie d b e a n s :p e a s , lim a b e a n s , c o w p e a , c h ic k p e a e tc .( A C I A R P r o c e e d in g s n o . 1 8 , 1 9 8 6 )C o n t in e n t / c o u n t r yA f r ic aIv o r y C o a s tT a n z a n iaZ a ir eZ im b a b w eA m e r ic aA r g e n t in aM e x ic oP a ra g u a yA s iaC h in aI n d iaI n d o n e s iaE u ro p eW o r ldP r o d u c t io n ( 1 0 0 0 t o n )Y ie ld ( k g / h a )7 0268362127516466725396347346 8472731 331396441 02064871324 5515 64012 9853546881 2765448295 2941 63255 2008072.2 SoyaTable 2 below indicates that soya is grown in many areas of the world:in North and South America and in Europe agricultural production ismechanized, in Asia production is small scale and largely done by hand.Soya has only recently been introduced in Africa, while it has beengrown and processed for many centuries throughout Asia.In Bolivia in South America, soya is grown for oil which is processedindustrially. Bolivian soya oil was first sold on the world market in 1985,and since then production has increased considerably. The total area inBolivia planted with soya increased from 60,000 hectares to 330,000hectares in the summer of 1994 – 1995.9
Agrodok 10Soya and other leguminous cropsTable 2: Worldwide cultivation of soya by region in 1996(Meneses et al., 1996)Region (country)WorldwideYield (kg/ hectare)57 7781 9204011 27015 4391 3405472 840North America23 8372 170South America16 7872 140Africa (Nigeria)Asia (China, India)Europe (Italy)10Hectares (1000 ha)
Cultivation requirements for legumes33Chapter 3Cultivation requirements forlegumesThis chapter is about how to grow soya and other legume crops. Togrow legumes successfully farmers need to know about the following: climate requirements soil type and soil fertility requirements when to sow suitable varieties how to combine legume crops with other activities on the farmPractical examples show how legumes can be integrated into localfarming systems and under which conditions legumes grow well indifferent areas of the world.3.1 Suitable areasLegumes and soya can be grown under a wide range of agroclimaticconditions. We list the main ones here to give the reader an idea of thevariety of conditions under which legumes do well.Upland river terraces and hills where shifting cultivation takesplaceShifting cultivation is a system in which farmers cut down an area oftrees, burn the remaining vegetation and use the land they have clearedfor agriculture. The ash from the burned material contains a lot ofnutrients, so the soil is fertile and in the first season crops with highnutrient requirements can be grown. In the following seasons othercrops are grown.In traditional shifting cultivation systems a piece of land was usuallyused for three or four years, after which the soil was exhausted and11
Agrodok 10Soya and other leguminous cropsFig. 1:Example of shifting cultivationwhere not all trees have beenfelled.weeds would start to take over. Theland would then be left fallow for aperiod of 10 to 15 years, giving the soiltime to recover after which the cyclewould start again. This system is nowunder pressure however as the fallowperiod becomes shorter, and the soil andvegetation have less and less time toregain fertility. In many places land iscultivated after each rainy season;weeds become more and more difficultto control and soil fertility is decreasing.The lack of nitrogen in the soil is a bigproblem. Legumes can help to restorenitrogen deficiencies and stop weedstaking over. For example, Mucunautilis can help to suppress Imperata, astubborn grassy weed which preventsfarmers from cultivating land.Lowland along rivers and coastal areas where rice is often grownThe soils in these areas are surrounded by rivers. Coastal areas wheremangroves used to grow are often not suitable for legumes as they aretoo acid once they have dried out after the rice harvest. Other soils inthese areas which are not subjected to salt water are less acid andmore suitable for agriculture. If these areas are submerged under waterduring the rainy season, rice is the only crop that can be grown. If thewater recedes after the rice harvest, legumes can be grown as asecond crop, making use of the moisture that remains in the soil. If it ispossible to irrigate, the land can also be used in the dry season.Highland areasMany legume food crops are grown at altitudes above 1000 metres.Highland areas are characterized by low temperatures, dryness and arelatively short growing season. The fields are often small, which makes12
Cultivation requirements for legumesChapter 3it difficult to use machines. Farmers work the land by hand or usinganimal traction. Legumes are grown on their own or in combination withother crops such as maize. The yields are often low, but the beans arean important source of protein for many families. Legumes such aschickpeas, peas, broad beans and lentils are grown in areas where thesoils are poor because they are resistant to drought, and the cropremains can be used as animal feed.Erosion is a common problem in these marginal areas. In some areasfarmers work the land in such a way as to ensure that the ridges runhorizontally as far as possible, following the contour lines. Rainwater iscaught by the ridges and so seeps down slowly into the soil. If theridges are made that follow the slope, rainwater runs off quickly, takingsoil with it and causing erosion. If the rainfall is very heavy the soilcannot always absorb the water quickly enough. The water will thenflow over the ridges, breaking them and causing serious erosion. Inareas where this is a problem it is better to build the ridges diagonallyover the slopes, so that some of the water is caught and can seep intothe soil, and the rest can run off.In the Bolivian highlands, where the amount of rainfall varies a lot,traditional methods are used to try and predict how much rain is likely tofall. If a lot of rain is expected the ridges are dug so that they run morein the direction of the slope; if less rain is expected the ridges are madeso that they run more or less parallel with the contour lines.3.2 ClimateUsing local climate data and the data in Appendix 1 you can start todecide which legumes may be suitable to grow in your area. Somelegumes grow better in cooler climates, where there are cold periods,others do better in a humid and warm climate, such as lowland areas inthe tropics. Others are adapted to extremely arid and hot conditions.13
Agrodok 10Soya and other leguminous cropsLegumes for different climatesFood legumes as a group have a very wide range of adaptability withrespect to latitude, temperature, day length and humidity. While some ofthem grow optimally at relatively low temperatures in long days, othersflourish at high temperatures associated with a day length of 12 hours ormore. This is perhaps one of the reasons that in almost every conceivable climate one food legume or other exists. Nevertheless, the factremains that the adaptability of each species or cultivar individually israther restricted (Sinha, 1977).Cool climates with cold periods at high latitudes or in higher areasof the tropicsBeans grown in moderate climates come from western Asia and theMediterranean, where they have been grown for thousands of years.These include lentils (Lens culinaris), peas (Pisum sativa), kidneybeans (Phaseolus sp.) and chickpeas (Cicer arietinum). Thecultivation of these crops spread over time to the Indian subcontinentand China. Peas and broad beans (Vicia faba) also spread northwardsto the cooler areas of northern Europe, and later were also taken toNorth and South America, Australia and South Africa. They are alsofound in highland areas of African countries such as Ethiopia andKenya.Humid tropical climatesSoya (Glycine max) and pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan) are suitable forwarm, humid climates.Hot arid climatesCowpea (Vigna inguiculata), green gram (Vigna aureus), black gram(Vigna mungo) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) can tolerateextreme dryness and high temperatures. Groundnuts, for example, aregrown in semi-arid and low-humid tropical areas of Africa, SoutheastAsia and Central America between 30 North and 30 South.14
Cultivation requirements for legumesChapter 3Climate requirements for soyaIn Bolivia soya is grown in the subtropical areas between 15 and 20 South, at low altitudes ( 700 metres above sea level) where temperatures are quite high (22 – 32 C), relative humidity is high ( 65%), daylength is short (12 – 13 hours) and annual rainfall is between 800 and1300mm.The minimum temperature at which soya develops is 10 C, the optimaltemperature is 22 C and the maximum is about 40 C. The seedsgerminate well at temperatures between 15 C and 40 C, the optimaltemperature being about 30 C.Fig. 2:Soya needs the correcttemperature, day length andamount of water to grow well.Adaptation to coldMuch soya is grown in areas with temperatures around 25 C – 30 C.It seems that night-time temperature has a greater influence on the cropthan daytime temperature. If the night-time temperature falls below thecritical level of 10 C the crop will undergo more damage than if thenight-time temperature stays above 10 C, regardless of the optimaldaytime temperature range of 25 C – 30 C.15
Agrodok 10Soya and other leguminous cropsIn Tokachi (Japan, between 42 20' and 43 30' N) soya yields perhectare are considerably lower in years when the temperature is coolerthan average. When temperatures are lower the soya flowers later,ripens later, develops fewer pods and produces a lower weight ofbeans.Generally speaking, cultivars with big seeds, pubescent (hairy), wideleaves and vigorous early-stage growth have relatively good yields incool years. Glabrous (smooth-leaved), less robust cultivars form fewerbeans and have lower yields. There is a clear connection betweenearly-stage growth vigour and yield. The better the plant develops in theearly stages of growth the higher the bean yield will be, especially undercool temperatures. Cultivars with small seeds germinate quickly, but arenot resistant to cold temperatures.Water requirementsSoya has two critical periods concerning water requirements: fromsowing to germination, and the period during which the beans grow inthe pods. Before a seed can germinate it needs to absorb 50% of itsweight in water. Nevertheless during the germination phase too muchwater causes more damage than too little water. The soil needs to bebetween 50% and 85% saturated with water. The amount of waterneeded increases as the crop grows, reaching its maximum as the beansdevelop in the pods (7 – 8 mm per day), and then decreases again. Tobe sure of a good yield, soya needs between 450 and 800 mm watereach day during its whole growth cycle, depending on the climate. Inhigh temperatures more water evaporates, so more rainfall is needed toprovide the crop with enough water.16
Cultivation requirements for legumesChapter 33.3 Varieties and cultivarsLegumesFig. 3:Seeds of different types of legumes. Note the differences in shapeand size!Local varieties of most sorts of legumes have developed and manyagricultural institutes all over the world have bred cultivars withdesirable characteristics such as resistance to disease and pests, higheryields and shorter ripening time. Farmers often know a lot about localvarieties and the conditions under which they grow well. They oftengrow different varieties of the same crop in order to spread their risks.If a field sown with one variety suffers damage in the form of disease,pests or bad weather, it is still possible that a field with a differentvariety will suffer less from the problems. The cultivars developed byagricultural test stations can often be a good addition. In cases where anew type of legume is introduced, farmers often have no choice but touse the cultivars offered by the local agricultural institute. The choice isusually too limited to be able to spread risks. The introduction of a singlecultivar or variety carries high risks for farmers. If a new legume cropis to be introduced into a certain area it is important to ensure thatfarmers can choose between a number of cultivars and/or varieties. Ifthis is not possible it is recommended that different types of legumecrops are introduced (Appendix 1).17
Agrodok 10Soya and other leguminous cropsDifferent varieties of a crop have different genetic characteristics. The differences have arisen as a result of the crop beingcultivated under different conditions to which it has adapted.Cultivars also have different genetic characteristics, but thesehave arisen through cross breeding or genetic manipulationunder controlled conditions, for example in an agriculturalinstitute.Day-length
This Agrodok is intended to help farmers and extension workers to make choices that will work well under local conditions. 4 Agrodok 10 Soya and other leguminous crops . 6 Soya: nutritious food 40 6.1 What is good nutrition? 40 6.2 Malnutrition 42 6.3 Soya and other l
Agrodok-series No. 1 The AGRODOK-SERIES is a series of low-priced, practical manuals on small-scale and sustainable agriculture in the tropics. AGRODOK booklets are available in English (E), French (F), Portuguese (P) and Spanish (S). Agrodok publications can be ordered from
The AGRODOK-SERIES is a series of low-priced, practical manuals on small-scale and sustainable agriculture in the tropics. AGRODOK booklets are available in English (E), French (F), Portuguese (P) and Spanish (S). Agrodok publications can be ordered from AGROMISA or CTA. 1. Pig keeping in the
The AGRODOK-SERIES is a series of low-priced, practical manuals on small-scale and sustainable agriculture in the tropics. AGRODOK booklets are available in English (E), French (F), Portuguese (P) and Spanish (S). Agrodok publications can be ordered from AGROMISA or CTA. 1. Pig keeping in the
The AGRODOK-SERIES is a series of low-priced, practical manuals on small-scale and sustainable agriculture in the tropics. AGRODOK booklets are available in English (E), French (F), Portuguese (P) and Spanish (S). Agrodok publications can be ordered from AGROMISA or CTA. 1. Pig farming in the
The AGRODOK-SERIES is a series of low-priced, practical manuals on small-scale and sustainable agriculture in the tropics. AGRODOK booklets are available in English (E), French (F), Portuguese (P) and Spanish (S). Agrodok publications can be ordered from AGROMISA or CTA. 1. Pig keeping in the
The AGRODOK-SERIES is a series of low-priced, practical manuals on small-scale and sustainable agriculture in the tropics. AGRODOK booklets are available in English (E), French (F), Portuguese (P) and Spanish (S). Agrodok publications can be ordered from AGROMISA or CTA. 1. Pig keeping in the
The AGRODOK-SERIES is a series of low-priced, practical manuals on small-scale and sustainable agriculture in the tropics. AGRODOK booklets are available in English (E), French (F), Portuguese (P) and Spanish (S). Agrodok publications can be ordered from AGROMISA or CTA. 1. Pig farming in the
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