Romancing Westphalia: Westphalian IR And Romance Of The .
Romancing Westphalia:Westphalian IR andRomance of the Three KingdomsL.H.M. LING*AbstractWe need to re-envision international relations(IR). By framing world politics as a world-ofworlds comprised of multiple, interactive andoverlapping regional worlds, we can curb thehegemony of the West through Westphalian IRand stem, if not transform, the “cartographicanxieties” that still beset postcolonial states. Bothof these provoke state violence externally andinternally. This paper examines an East Asianregional world inflected by the 14th-centuryChinese epic, Romance of the Three Kingdoms.Noting its conflicts as well as compatibilitieswith Westphalian IR, I conclude with theimplications of this thought experiment for IRand for world politics in general.Key WordsRegional worlds, hegemony, conflict andcompatibility, Westphalian IR, Romance ofthe Three Kingdoms.* L.H.M. Ling is Associate Dean of FacultyAffairs at the New School for PublicEngagement (NSPE) and Associate Professorat the Milano School of International Affairs,Management, and Urban Policy, The NewSchool, in New York City. I thank Chen Boyu,Kim Wookyung, Kim Youngwon, Thuy Doand Kay Yamaguchi for helping me with thecultural artifacts of Romance in East Asia today.Special thanks, also, to Tan Chung for hisinsights on Romance.PERCEPTIONS, Spring 2014, Volume XIX, Number 1, pp. 167-181.IntroductionState violence in Asia invariablyresurrects the West’s old saw about“Oriental despotism”.1 Basically, itaccuses “Oriental” peoples of notknowing how to govern themselves.They resort to acts of violence andsuppression whenever dissent arises,Eurocentrics claim, in contrast to theenlightened, democratic processes of theWest. It’s the same old story of the futurevs the past, modernity vs tradition,liberal-democracy vs authoritarianism.To Fukuyama, this realisation signals“the end of history”.2 They (“the Orient”)must learn to be more like us (“theWest”). Accordingly, more education,more supervision and, if necessary, moresanctions must follow. The West stillrules.Besides its inherent imperialism, thisEurocentric critique sees only half thepicture. It fails to acknowledge a contextto the problem: that is, the internationalsources of state violence. Gourevitch firstraised this awareness in the late 1970s butfrom an elite-structural, not a subalternpostcolonial, perspective.3 Palumbo-Liu167
L.H.M. Lingdescribes this analytical lack as “whiteof postcolonial mimicry). Indeed, state4elites and Eurocentrics alike benefitabsence”. It accounts for why thefrom internalised imperialism. They canmainstream media in 1992, for example,seem actively taking charge and solvingfocused only on the conflict betweenproblems without doing anything toKoreans and blacks in the riots following5transform the situation. Meanwhile,the first Rodney King trial. That is,ordinary citizens suffer. And Westphalia’s“white absence” excuses from scrutinyimpact on world politics remains hidden,the white power structure in which bothoverlooked and untreated.8minority groups must fight for survivaland justice. Similarly, as C. Chen pointsGenerations of leaders/thinkers in Asiaout in his paper, we must understand thehave tried alternatives. Strategies havecurrent dispute between China and Japanranged from state rejection (Qing China)over the an)within the context By framing world politics as tohybridityofWestphalia’s a world-of-worlds comprised (Nehru’sIndia).imposed inter-state of multiple, interactive and Ultimately,eachsystem, defined and overlapping regional worlds, succumbed to larger,marked by territorial we can curb the hegemony of contextual forces.9sovereignty. No such the West through Westphalian Strategies directeddispute had occurred IR and stem, if not transform, internationally havein the region for the “cartographic anxieties” that fared no better.millennia before thisThe 1955 Bandungstill beset postcolonial states.historical imposition.Conference soughtIndeed, Westphalia’sto neutralise Coldforced entry into world politics has leftWar rivalries between the US and thehuge swathes of the globe dealing withSoviet Union with Afro-Asian-Caribbean“cartographic anxieties” that rationalisesolidarity. In the 1970s, third world statesstate violence both externally andproposed a New International Economicinternally, as Ahmed notes about Assam.Order (NIEO), reinforced by oil priceEmasculated by Westphalia as thehikes from the Organisation of Petroleum6degenerate, “sick” Oriental Other, stateExporting Countries (OPEC), to createelites feel compelled to proclaim to thea more equitable world economy forWestphalian Self: “We are man enoughall. Each effort has dissipated despiteto be just like you! We, too, can censor,its early promise. Seven years after7jail, barricade and shoot”. (EurocentricsBandung, India and China warred overfail to appreciate the comprehensivenessborders drawn by former colonisers.10168
Westphalian IR and Romance of the Three KingdomsToday, the World Social Forum (WSF)champions global change for the GlobalSouth. Founded in 2001 and committedto the proposition that “another world ispossible”, the WSF seeks to counter theneoliberal, globalising interests of theWorld Economic Forum (WEF). Thelatter represents the globe’s corporate,cultural and political elites, gatheringannually in the posh, Swiss resort ofDavos; whereas, the WSF convenes atvarious locations in the Global South andwelcomes the subaltern, the exploitedand the oppressed.11 But is this enough?12We need to re-envision IR.13 Ashistory attests, neither domestic norinternational reform alone can shiftWestphalia’s hegemony. Instead, we needto align the “outside” with the “inside”by anchoring both in a “regional world”.Acharya defines a regional world as a“broader, inclusive, open, and interactivedynamic of regions and regionalisms.It is not just about how regions selforganize their economic, political andcultural space, but also about how theyrelate to each other and shape globalorder”.14 Put differently, a regional worldrepresents a way of life and living throughtime-honoured traditions shared byneighbours. This would globalise IR foran already globalised world-of-worlds.15Not only would we finally see and hearfrom the “multiple worlds”16 that makeworld politics but doing so would also“provincialise”17 Westphalian IR as,simply, another regional world. Fromthis basis, we may stem, if not transform,Westphalia’s “cartographic anxieties”.As history attests, neitherdomestic nor internationalreformalonecanshiftWestphalia’s hegemony.Let’s try a thought experiment. I drawa regional world for East Asia based onthe 14th-century Chinese epic, Sanguoyanyi (Romance of the Three Kingdoms;hereafter, Romance).18 The epic remainspopular today throughout the region,ranging from the vast Chinese mainlandto Korea-Japan in the northeast andHong Kong-Taiwan-Singapore-Vietnamin the southeast. The epic tells of thecompetition between three statesShu, Wu and Wei- for supremacy“under heaven” (tianxia). The epiccovers the chaos that followed the HanDynasty’s decline (c. 169 AD) to the reestablishment of world-order under theJin Dynasty (c. 280 AD). Besides books,19films20 and TV dramas,21 the novel stayscurrent through new social media such asmanga,22 anime,23 computer games24 andinternet discussions.25 As B. Chen notesin his paper, the President of Taiwan castfuture relations with China in terms ofthe novel’s opening line: “Long divided,the world will unite; long united, it willfall apart” (“tianxia da shi, fen jiou bi he,he jiou bi fen”). These words, along with169
L.H.M. Lingthe epic’s other phrases, episodes andcharacters, echo throughout the region.26I begin with Wendt’s “three cultures ofanarchy” in Westphalian IR: Hobbesianenmity, Lockean rivalry and Kantianfriendship.27 I juxtapose these withcomparable identities in Romance: selfaggrandising enmity, negotiated rivalriesand eternal brotherhood. I includethree other identities that also signifythe epic: strategic genius, politicaltrickster and ubiquitous narrator. (Morecould be added but these are the mainones.) Here, I draw on the latest (2010)televised version of Romance, titled ThreeKingdoms (Sanguo).28 I do so ratherthan draw directly from the novel tounderscore its currency in the popularimagination today within China andthroughout the region. (The series alsomirrors the novel closely).29 I concludewith the implications of a Romanceinflected regional world for globalisingIR.Enemy, Rival, FriendTo Wendt, only three ideal-typecultures apply in (Westphalian) worldpolitics. Hobbesian enmity, also notedas Machiavellian, evokes realist IRwith the familiar characterisation ofworld politics as an unrelenting “warreof all against all”. Lockean or Grotianrivalry accords with liberal IR with itsrecognition of the capacity of normsand institutions, such as sovereignty,170to curb Hobbesian tendencies. AndKantian friendship prefigures the riseof constructivist IR with its belief inthe possibility of (collective) normssubsuming (individual) self-interest;accordingly, states could resolve disputeswithout resort to violence knowingthat cooperation benefits all. “Externalnorms”, Wendt writes on Kantianfriendship, “have become a voice in ourheads telling us that we want to followthem”.30Hobbesian enmity, also notedasMachiavellian,evokesrealist IR with the familiarcharacterisationofworldpolitics as an unrelenting “warreof all against all”.Wendt bases these cultures llianenmity,for instance, asserts a self-interested,competitive and murderous individual inthe State of Nature now coded for worldpolitics: “Self mirrors Other, becomes itsenemy, in order to survive . This givesenemy-images a homeostatic qualitythat sustains the logic of Hobbesiananarchies”.31 Lockean/Grotian rivalryreflects the possessive individual whoseeks, primarily, to protect ion holds [that] states comply
Westphalian IR and Romance of the Three Kingdomswith sovereignty norms because theythink it will advance some exogenouslygiven interest, like security or trade”.33And Kantian friendship internalises the“Lockean culture”: “Most states complywith its norms because they accept themas legitimate identify with them andwant to comply. States are status quonot just at the level of behavior, but ofinterests as well, and as such [are] nowmore fully self-regulating actors”.34Wendt implies a progression here: statesadvance from Hobbesian enmity toLockean rivalry to (hopefully) Kantianfriendship.Self-aggrandising Enmity,Negotiated Rivalries, EternalBrotherhoodRomance offers a distinctive contrast.Not only does the epic interpret enmity,rivalry and friendship differently butit also extends the roster of cultures togenius, trickster and narrator. Let’s seehow:Self-aggrandising enmityCao Cao (155-220 AD) representsthe key antagonist in Romance. A lowlevel official from a family associatedwith eunuchs,35 Cao rises to becomechancellor of the Han Dynasty inits dying years. To deflect charges ofunseemly ambition, Cao never proclaimshimself emperor- despite acting like oneand holding the actual Emperor hostage.Romance depicts Cao as ruthless,conniving and self-serving. For instance,Cao kills his kindly godfather, who hadgiven him safe haven, for fear the old manwould inadvertently reveal the secret.But the epic also notes Cao’s utmostcompetence, savvy and- contrary to thetimes- emotional honesty. “I’d ratherowe the world”, Cao famously declares,“than have the world owe me” (“ningyuan wo fu tianxiaren, bu yuan tianxiarenfu wo”). Cao embodies a kind of selfaggrandising power: his approach to hisenemies reflects agency, not Hobbes’situational inevitability, Machiavelli’samoral calculations, or Wendt’sexistential mirroring. Cao decides onfriend or foe depending on person andcircumstance. At times, Cao allies withhis main rival, Liu Bei (161-223 AD).Cao also honours talent. He imprisonsand then releases Guan Yu preciselydue to the warrior’s famed ability witha halberd and his unswerving dedicationto Liu, his “elder brother” (da ge). WhenGuan Yu dies, Cao mourns grievously.Negotiated rivalriesThe novel itself testifies to rivalryin world politics. All the charactersand plots revolve around this centralpremise. For this reason, social scientistsin the West take the “three kingdoms”as a metaphor for a multi-polar world171
L.H.M. Lingpolitics.36 But the plots and schemesEternal brotherhoodin Romance do not simply reflect rulebound self-interest or possessiveness, asThe epic celebrates, above all else,Wendt suggests for Lockean/Grotianbrotherly love. It finds iconic expressionrivalry. Rather, decisions to ally or fightin the relationship between Liu Bei (“firstoften reflect contending psychologiesbrother”), Guan Yu (“second brother”)such as greed, ambition, fear, lust,and Zhang Fei (“third brother”),jealousy, vanity and brotherly love- oftenordered according to age. Each supports,in the same individual. Still other times,comforts and protects the other, always.alliances reflect norms of honour, dutyEven when Cao captures Guan Yu,and righteousness. One episode showshoping to recruit him, the latter returnsZhuge Liang, master strategist for Liuto Liu’s side at his first opportunityBei, on a mission to persuade Sun Quan,despite countless hazards along thePrince of Wu, to ally with Liu againstway. The three men’s oath of loyaltyCao. A long hallwayis legendary: “Weof Sun’s ministers, Westphalian IR has no narrativeask not to be borngenerals and advisorsof genius in world politics. At in the same year,greet the mastermost, it forwards the notion of same month, samestrategistwhenday (bu qiou tonghe arrives at the (Western) hegemonic stabilitynian, tong yue, tongpalace. Each poses a to justify the Eurocentric claimri sheng) but hopequestion to Zhuge, of “West knows best”.to die in the sameas he walks downyear, same month,the hallway, as toand same day” (“dan yuan tong nian,why an alliance should ensue. Zhugetong yue, tong ri si”). Cao commandsdefeats each questioner by exposing ain lonely isolation, in contrast, perhapsdefect in his logic. Zhuge’s final andaccounting for his frequent migraines.winning argument, however, hinges onAdvisors and ministers abound but theyrighteousness: “Are we not honourableperform primarily as lackeys. Cao doesmen?”37 The longstanding appeal ofnot inspire the kind of brotherly loveRomance rests not only on calculations ofthat Liu enjoys. For example, Liu valuesself-interest- certainly, these matter- butthe brilliance of Pang Tong, a subsidiarythe epic also underscores a larger sense ofcharacter, despite the latter’s ugly facewhat it means to go to war, sacrifice one’sand body. Here, the epic makes a subtlelife, persevere despite repeated failurespoint: all the plotting and scheming,and make the most of triumph which is,warring and fighting may thrill but itultimately, momentary. The novel asks:pales next to the succour and devotionWhat is it all for?172
Westphalian IR and Romance of the Three Kingdomsof one’s brothers-in-arms. Even conjugallove cannot compare. “Wives are likeclothes” (“qizi ru yishang”), Liu jokes,“whereas brothers are like the palm ofone’s hand” (“xiongdi ru shouzhang”).This norm of brotherly love and loyalty inRomance contrasts starkly with Wendt’snotion of Kantian friendship. It mayinduce “a single ‘cognitive region’ [suchas] ‘we-feeling,’ ‘solidarity,’ ‘pluralsubject,’ ‘common in-group identity,’‘thinking like a team,’ ‘loyalty,’ and soon”,38 but the state-as-person remains“pre-social”.39 Like Hobbes’ individualin the State of Nature, Wendt’s stateas-person sprouts mushroom-like aftera rain.40 There is little sense of identitythrough social relations, as demonstratedby the oath of eternal brotherhoodbetween Liu, Guan and Zhang.RomancingWestphaliabroadens, while deepening, IRand world politics. It expandsour repertoire of identities,norms and practises in worldpolitics today drawn from therich histories and cultures ofour pre-Westphalian past.GeniusAlong with Cao Cao and Liu Bei,the third key figure of Romance isZhuge Liang. Always elegantly attiredin silk robes and waving a fan made ofcrane feathers (even in battle), Zhugeis Liu’s master strategist and, later, hisprime minister. In addition to militarystrategy, Zhuge is renowned for hisoverall genius as a scholar, thinker andinventor. Two examples suffice. In thecritical Battle of Red Cliff (chi bi), alongthe southern bank of the Yangzi River,Liu finds himself outnumbered by Cao’sforces in men and ammunition. Defeatseems imminent but Zhuge finds anextraordinary solution. He has severalsmall, straw boats made to send out inthe thick fog of night towards the enemy’sfleet. Thinking Liu is attempting a sneakattack, Cao’s admirals order thousandsof arrows shot at the boats. Zhuge’s menlater retrieve the boats- and the arrows- touse against the enemy next day. A secondexample comes from an episode titled“Empty City Scheme” (“kong cheng ji”).Sima Yi, now Great Commander underCao’s son, advances towards Zhuge whois camped within a small city. Zhuge iscaught by surprise, without adequateforces, yet he cannot run. He knowsSima’s army can easily capture him andhis people. Instead, Zhuge leaves thecity gate slightly ajar. He orders somemen to casually sweep leaves outside.Zhuge stations himself atop the citygate, plucking the guqin, a zither-likeinstrument. The master strategist playscalmly, melodiously. He must have lotsof men armed to the teeth to play so well,173
L.H.M. LingSima guesses with his forces just beyondthe city gate. He retreats and Zhugeis saved for another day. WestphalianIR has no narrative of genius in worldpolitics. At most, it forwards the notionof (Western) hegemonic stability tojustify the Eurocentric claim of “Westknows best”.TricksterSima Yi exemplifies the trickster: hewho can wait a lifetime before makinghis move. Initially appointed to tutorCao’s son, Sima lays low until his 70s,even feigning a coma, before seizingpower. When he does, Sima takes off hiscloth boot and sticks his bare foot on theneck of his now kneeling captive, regentto the boy emperor. The late Cao Cao,Sima explains to the hapless regent, hadonce joked that the shiniest part of aman’s body is his foot because it is alwayscovered. Now, Sima thrusts his footfurther upon the regent’s neck, I showyou mine. Sima’s grandson eventuallyrises to become the founding Emperor ofthe Jin Dynasty, thereby reuniting Chinaand ending the warring states period.Again, Westphalian IR has no explicitcounterpart to the trickster. What comesclosest are stereotypes of the Other as“duplicitous” or “deviant” but with onlynegative outcomes such as “rogue” or“failed states”.174NarratorWe cannot discount the role ofthe ubiquitous narrator in Romance.Not only does it relate all the eventsand characters that transpire over acentury, but the narrator also providesa philosophy to understand them. Itsopening line, for instance, conveys thedialectics of time and power: “Longdivided, the world will unite; longunited, it will fall apart”. The narratordraws on this outlook throughout theepic to account for the various alliancesand their unravelling epitomised bythe three kingdoms. Westphalian IR’sclosest version of an omniscient presencecomes from Waltz’s identification ofworld politics as a “self-help system” thatstructures world politics so that there canbe “order without an orderer”.41No longer can Eurocentricsclaim supremacy in cing Westphalia broadens,while deepening, IR and world politics.It expands our repertoire of identities,norms and practises in world politicstoday drawn from the rich historiesand cultures of our pre-Westphalianpast. From this basis, the postcolonialstate may begin to recover from its
Westphalian IR and Romance of the Three Kingdoms“cartographic anxieties” induced byWestphalian hegemon
three other identities that also signify the epic: strategic genius, political trickster and ubiquitous narrator. (More could be added but these are the main ones.) Here, I draw on the latest (2010) televised version of Romance, titled Three Kingdoms (Sanguo).28 I do so rather than draw dire
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Jurisdiction is an aspect of a State’s sovereignty, as the right to prescribe and enforce laws is an essential component of statehood. In the classic Westphalian understanding, this right has been limited to a State’s territory, a limitation that at the same time ensures that no State intervenes in another State’s affairs (Section 1).
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inertia of pile cross section with respect to the neutral axis. Relationships between variables lem p M dM V dV V M dx x x x x x F y p y I M x dx p right p (soil resistance) p left a) Pile loading b) Net soil reactionc) Pile deflection d) Slope e) Bending moment. The Genesis of the P-Y Curve: (Reese and Van Impe, 2001) B . P-y curve Method . P-Y CURVES . p-y model used for analysis of .
