C.L.A.P Factors - O LEVELS ELECT GEOG REVISION NOTES
ELECTIVE GEOGRAPHY – PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY NOTESWEATHER AND CLIMATEWeatherClimateCondition of atmosphere of a particular place and specific timeAverage condition of atmosphere of a particular place over a long period oftimeC.L.A.P factors (influencing temperature)Cloud coverGENERAL IDEA:Day with cloud cover: cooler Night with cloud cover: warmerDay with no cloud cover: warmer Night with no cloud cover: cooler Cloud cover acts as shield, deflecting away incoming insolation in thedayCloud cover acts as a blanket in the night, trapping outgoing solarradiation, retaining heat at night.At night when there is no cloud cover, the warm generated in the day isallowed to be re-radiated back into space, resulting in lowertemperature.Example: Sahara Desert with not much cloud cover.LatitudeGENERAL IDEA:Nearer the equator: higher temperatureFurther from equator: lower temperature At lower latitude, distance away from the sun is shorter, thus angle ofincidence of Sun’s rays and the concentration of heat over the areaon Earth’s surface are greater, resulting in less solar energy beinglost to space. This is due to the curvature of Earth on its axis andthe titillation of the Earth, resulting in higher temperature.NOTE: Singapore is near the equator, thus it experiences negligibletemperature difference. Places further away from the equator like China willexperience higher temperature in June (summer) as the earth tilts in a waythat more sun’s rays hit towards China.Compiled by EC 2017This stack of notes does not include everything in the textbook but serves to help you to score at least a distinction.
AltitudeGENERAL IDEA:Higher altitude: lower temperature Lesser air particles at higher altitude to trap heat as air particles moveto Earth’s surface due to gravityLonger time for longwave radiation to reach higher altitudes andconduct warmth, thus lower temperature.Example: Genting Highlands vs City area in Kuala LumpurProximitySeato GENERAL IDEA:Nearer to water bodies: warmer temperature (small temp range)In land area: heats and cools faster than sea (large temp range) Sea has higher specific heat capacity, thus requiring more heatenergy to raise the temperature by 1 Sea heats and cools slower than landDue to the difference in temperature, there is an exchange of air atcoastal area, leading to moderating effectInland areas experience continental effectSea experience maritime influenceIn the day, inland area has a higher temperature than coastal area /water bodies.CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL Sun’s rays heat up the Earth’s surfaceAir expands and rises, carrying moisture within themTemperature drops at higher altitudes and air cools to dew point temperatureCondensation occurs and clouds are formed,Rain fallsRELIEF / OROGRAPHIC RAINFALL Insolation heats up sea, evaporation occurs, water vapour formsHuge mass of moist warm air forms above seaPrevailing wind pushes air towards land, forced to rise against obstacles (mountain)At higher altitude, temperature is lower, dew point is met and henceCondensation occurs and form clouds from water dropletsToo heavy to hold, falls as rain over windward side of mountainAt leeward side, little moisture left thus air is dryNOTE: Windward side has moisture and rainfall; Leeward side is dry and no rainfallCompiled by EC 2017This stack of notes does not include everything in the textbook but serves to help you to score at least a distinction.
Natural / Physical Causes (of climate change)ClimateChangeRefers to substantial change in state of the climate that can be identified bychange in variability of atmospheric conditions and that persists for anextended period of time, typically decades or longerSolar Variations in solar outputMagnetic activity of Sun has a cycle that lasts for 11 yearsSunspots from Sun increase when solar activity is high as areassurrounding the sunspots radiate more energy which compensate forlower temperatures of sunspot areas Gradual reduction in amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surfaceSulfur dioxide reacts with water vapour and other chemicals to formsulfur-based particlesDust particles from eruption form condensation nuclei, creating morecloud coverDust and ash reflect away incoming solar radiation back to spaceLesser incoming solar radiation, lower temperature, global dimmingoccursVolcaniceruptions[O level 2017] Earth’sorbitalchanges Earth's orbit around the sun is elliptical, not perfectly circular.The earth makes one full orbit around the sun each year. Changes inthe tilt of the earth can lead to small but climatically important changesin the strength of the seasons over tens of thousands of years.More tilt means warmer summers and colder winters; less tilt meanscooler summers and milder winters.Therefore, leading to climate change.Unnatural / Human Causes (of climate change)Burning offossil fuels Deforestation Fossil fuels are formed from decomposition of dead organic matter overmillions of years which contain carbonCombustion of fossil fuels can release huge concentration of CO2,trapping heat and leading to enhanced greenhouse effect and globalwarmingLoss of forests due to removal of treesForests are natural carbon sinksForest absorbs CO2 and releases O2 but deforestation leads to lessintake of CO2 and increasing concentration of CO2Carbon oxidation is where carbon in soil reacts with O2 in atmosphereto form CO2Deforestation exposes soil to sunlight, increasing temperature of soiland rate of carbon oxidationReleasing more CO2 that traps heat and lead to global warmingExample: Honduras with 37% of deforestation in 1990-2005.Agriculture Greater demand for foodIntensification of food production leads to cattle ranchingReleases millions of tonnes of methane annually from cattle’s digestivesystemMethane is a greenhouse gas that traps heat and leads to globalwarmingCompiled by EC 2017This stack of notes does not include everything in the textbook but serves to help you to score at least a distinction.
Industries Refer to production of goods and services within a countryRice cultivation requires use of machineries such as tractors running onfossil fuels, producing CO2. In China, use of inorganic fertilisersincreases amount of nitrous oxide in soil which is released when soil isploughed or when rain flows through soilSEA BREEZE Blows from sea to land in the dayDifferences in air pressureSea heats up and cools slower than landLand has higher temperature and lower pressure while sea has lower temperature andhigh pressurePressure moves from high to lowNOTE: Land breeze has the opposite concept and occurs at night.Monsoonwinds At northern hemisphere wind deflect to rightAt southern hemisphere wind deflect to leftDue to coriolis effect, wind picks up moisture and dissipatesTropicalEquatorialclimate[O level 2017] Small temperature range / similar temperature all year roundLocated near equatorDominantly convectional rain with large cloudTropicalMonsoonclimate[O level 2017] High temperature, small annual rangeHigh rainfall and high humidity all year round but distinct wet and dryseasonsDistinct wetseason at JuneDistinct dryseason at JanuaryConclusion:Located atnorthernhemisphereCooltemperatureclimate(Marine westcoast) Large temperature rangeRainfall evenly distributed but total annual rainfall lower than in placeswith equatorial and monsoon climates.Compiled by EC 2017This stack of notes does not include everything in the textbook but serves to help you to score at least a distinction.
Impacts of climate changeSea level rise Increase in mean height of sea’s surface between high and low tiderelative to landIncrease temperature in atmosphere, causing water bodies to expandand melting of ice shelves, adding meltwater to seaThreatening low-lying areas and islands submerged in waterIncreases risk of damage to homes and buildings and disintegration ofcommunitiesAffects and contaminates coastal aquifers (groundwater) andagricultural soilSeawater inundation (surface flow of seawater onto unconfinedaquifers) and seawater intrusion occur where salt water encroachthrough subsurface, threatening freshwater supply to farmersExample: Maldives 1880 reported to have 8 inches of floodFrequentextremeweatherevents Results in significant economic losses and loss of livesHotter days and stronger hurricanesMore money needed to monitor and predict extreme weather eventsand rebuilding afterExample: Europe 2015 suffered a severe drought in summer with highheat, causing soils and plants to dry out, leading to spread of wildfires andagricultural and hydropower production reducedSpread ofinfectiousinsect-bornediseases Increased rainfall and temperature are favourable for breeding ofmosquitoesGreater chance of spreading malaria and dengue fever, causing incomeloss due to loss of work hours, affecting productivity and increase inpublic health expenditureSocial impact as cost due to medical and healthcare bills are expensiveEconomic impact as strain of financial resources on healthcareExample: healthcare in Singapore costs 220 million in 2007 due to denguefever.Lengtheningof growingseason incertainregions Higher temperatures lead to longer growing seasons for some regionsAdvantage is that higher latitudes are that cold regions are nowwarmer, more conducive for crop growthIncrease in types of crops grown such as potatoes and wheat inCanadaFarmers can earn more income as crop yields increaseDisadvantage is that lower latitudes are that warmer regions are nowhotter and less conducive for crop growth, causing food shortage andhence, malnutrition.Example: Apples and cherries production in Yunnan is reduced as theyneed cool conditions.Responses / Strategies to climate changeINTERNATIONAL MEASURES [O level 2017]KyotoProtocol Linked to United Nations framework convention on climate change in1997Different countries have different targets to hit and progress of carbonemissions will be tracked and reported for reviewCompiled by EC 2017This stack of notes does not include everything in the textbook but serves to help you to score at least a distinction.
Success: Greece and finland met or exceeded targets Creates platforms for LDCs and DCs to collaborate to encouragesustainable carbon reduction developmentExample: CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) /Carbon Credits Trading Scheme /Tianjin Dagang Mapengkou Wind Power Project that uses cleaner sourceof energy via windLimitations: Countries like Denmark and Sweden didn’t meet targets and not allcountries have same targets Not compulsory and not many countries like China signed up andcontributed Countries who didn’t sign up contribute to greater carbon emissions Countries are not restricted to withdraw from the protocolExample: Canada and Australia withdrawn from Kyoto Protocol in 2011 and2014 respectivelyCopenhagonConference Held in Denmark, 2009. Hosted to build upon measures developed inprevious conferences for addressing climate changeEngages with heads of government in the topic of climate problems.Success: Sets tangible and realistic targets Allows countries to discuss measures to deal with climate changeeffectively, including improvements to CDM (Clean DevelopmentMechanism)Limitations: Lacks of concrete plans on how to reduce greenhouse gases Countries did not agree on how to reduce greenhouse gases Not adopted by all countries. No countries will be punished if they donot fulfil their pledgesExample: 8 countries didn’t engage with the accord and represents 2.09%of global emissions.NATIONAL MEASURES [O level 2017]Green Plan2012 Launched in 2002 by Ministry of Environment to reduce greenhousegases by using natural gas as energy sourceTo generate 60% of local energy with natural gas by 2012Success is that by 2010, 79% of local electricity was generated fromnatural gas, exceeding target ahead of scheduleLimitations: High maintenance costs as pipelines are laid underground and requiresregular checks for leakage Complex treatment plants needed to process and transport natural gasGreen MarkScheme Launched by Building Construction Authority in 2005 to evaluate andcertify buildings according to how energy efficient and environmentallyfriendly they areTo encourage more green buildings that run partly on solar energyBuildings which are energy efficient use less energy provide the sameservice with lesser energyCompiled by EC 2017This stack of notes does not include everything in the textbook but serves to help you to score at least a distinction.
Success is that some green buildings are National Library Board andPlaza by the ParkThese buildings have been reported to have 15% to 35% of energysavings compared to conventional buildingsThis cuts down greenhouse gas emissions by reducing the use of fossilfuels to generate electricityLimitations: Costly as green materials are expensive Construction companies are too conservation to adopt new ideas andmaterials to build green buildingsPlant-A-TreeProgramme Launched in 1971 as Tree Planting Day by the Garden City Fund andSingapore Environmental CouncilResidents are encouraged to donate money to buy a tree or take part intree planting events that occur monthly throughout SingaporeSuccess is that the programme has contributed to an estimated 60000trees being planted yearly as reported by the National Parks BoardTrees are carbon sinks that reduce carbon dioxide levels in atmosphereLimitations: Takes many years for trees to mature and effect is not immediate For example. Trees such as angsana and raintrees that 25 years toreach their full height With growing demand for land for human activities and commercialpurposes, the sustainability of such programmes in the long run is beingquestionedWEATHER AND CLIMATE FIELDWORK: WEATHER INSTRUMENTSMaximumminimumthermometerOR Six’sthermometer[Note:Temperatureis drawn asline graphs]HOW TO CARRY OUT:MEASURE TEMPERATURE Read the temperature every 24 hours Read the maximum and minimum temperatures from the bottom ofmetal indices Read at eye level (use magnet) reset the indicesENSURING ACCURACY: Stevenson screen is used for storing the thermometer. Must be above1.2m to prevent excessive absorption of heat radiated from the ground Stevenson screen is white as it is a poor absorber of infrared radiation Stevenson screen has louvers to allow air circulationBENEFITS OF DIGITAL MAX-MIN THERMOMETER: Easy to read / convenient to read or use Instant measurement / quick / saves times Portable / easy to carry Accurate / gives decimal point reading / exact / precise Robust / strong / won’t break easily Easy to resetSLINGPSYCHROMETERORWet and drybulbthermometerORHygrometerHOW TO CARRY OUT:MEASURE RELATIVE HUMIDITY Identify suitable location Swing psychrometer for 1 minute Record wet and dry bulb reading Calculate difference and identify relative humidity using humidity table Total of 3 intervals in a day, preferably in morning, afternoon and nightENSURING ACCURACY: [O level 2017]Compiled by EC 2017This stack of notes does not include everything in the textbook but serves to help you to score at least a distinction.
[Note:RelativeHumidity isdrawn as linegraphs] RAIN GAUGE[Note:Rainfall indiagrams aredrawn as bargraphs]Ensure that only distilled water is used for the container for the wick forwet bulbAs any impurities can affect rate of evaporation, affecting accuracyNever touch wick with oily hands as impurities or oil can affect rate ofevaporationStretch out at arm’s length before start to prevent excessive radiation ofheat from body to the instrumentHOW TO CARRY OUT MEASURE RAINFALLIdentify suitable location. Place rain gauge sunken 1/3 into the groundRecord start of placing, return and record reading after 24 hoursEmpty container after useENSURING ACCURACY: Place rain gauge away from buildings or trees to prevent excessivecollection of rainfall due to leaf drip Do not place on concrete ground to prevent excessive collection ofrainfall as water droplets rebounce into the rain gauge Use appropriate material such as copper for the casing to preventexcessive conduction of heat, causing loss of rainfall collected due toevaporationANEMOMETER[Symbol ofwind speed isknown as windbarbs asshown below]WIND VANE[Representedby a windrose]HOW TO CARRY OUT: MEASURE WIND SPEEDPlace at high grounds, unobstructed by buildings or physical barriersHas cups / spoons that revolve in the windConnected to meter which counts number of revolutions per minuteRecord wind speeds at different timing over a day from screenCalculate average wind speedMEASURE WIND DIRECTIONHOW TO CARRY OUT: Arrow points the direction the wind is coming from Horse provides large surface area to catch the wind Compass N, S, E, W to allow direction to be worked outThe circle in the wind rose(middle) represents thenumber of days that hasno wind.The numbers show thewind direction at certaindays in June. For example,the wind direction for 1stJune is in the East.BarometerMEASURE AIR PRESSUREHOW TO CARRY OUT Identify suitable location and read off at appropriate intervals Remember to adjust the knob of the movable pointer to coincide withcurrent reading of the measuring hand as a form of resetENSURING ACCURACY: Parallex error Damage of intended vacuum within the barometerCompiled by EC 2017This stack of notes does not include everything in the textbook but serves to help you to score at least a distinction.
ELECTIVE GEOGRAPHY – PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY NOTESPLATE TECTONICSDivergentPlateMovementConstructive plate boundary Magma cools and spreads, dragging along plates and move away fromeach Destructive plate boundary Magma cools and sinks, pulling the plates along, moving towards eachotherStrike-slip faultConservative plate boundary Plates move past one another at opposite directionsSlap-pull forceRidge pushOceanic plate subducts less dense plateCooling rocks exert force on spreading lithosphere plats, helping to drivetheir movements.DIVERGENT OCEANIC – OCEANICLandforms:1. Midoceanicridge (egmidAtlanticridge)2. Volcanicislands Tensional force on oceanic crust, forming faultlinesMagma rises from mantle layer, cools and solidifies and fills faultlinesForms new seafloor known as seafloor spreadingMagma rises at spreading zone to form a new mid-oceanic ridgeDIVERGENT CONTINENTAL – CONTINENTALLandforms:1. Rift valley(eg Greatrift valleyat EastAfrica)2. Blockmountains Tensional force on continental plates results in breakup ofcontinents.Rocks are displaced, steep sides are formed along faultlines.Rising convection currents drag lithosphere apart, forming normal faultsDrop in central block or parts of crust will sink in relation to the adjacenthighlands, forming rift valley.Block mountain is a block of land with steep sides. It is formed whensections of crust extend along fault lines and rock massessurrounding a central block sink due to tensional forces, leavingblock mountains higher than central block.Block mountainRift valleyCONVERGENT OCEANIC – OCEANICLandforms:1. A chain ofarc of Plates converge by slab-pull forceSubduction of denser oceanic plate under less dense continental plateSubduction zone forms deep oceanic trenchCompiled by EC 2017This stack of notes does not include everything in the textbook but serves to help you to score at least a distinction.
islands2. Deepoceanictrench3. Volcanoes Subduction of oceanic plate causes solid mantle material to melt andform magma, rising through faultlines, cools and solidifies to formvolcanoeseg mariana trench from Phillipines and Pacific platesCONVERGENT CONTINENTAL – CONTINENTAL [O level 2017]Landforms:1. Foldmountains Plates converge by slab-pull forceDue to similar densities, continental plates do not subduct eachotherThey experience compressional forceBuckle and fold to form fold mountainseg Himalayas mountain from Eurasian and Indian platesCONVERGENT OCEANIC – CONTINENTAL [O level 2017]Landforms:1. Foldmountains2
[O level 2017] Small temperature range / similar temperature all year round Located near equator Dominantly convectional rain with large cloud Tropical Monsoon climate [O level 2017] High temperature, small annual range High rainfall and high humidity all year round
mix were predominantly the major factors influencing the consumers ¶ decision to buy. These was based on durable goods, such as televisions fridge, motor vehicle and etc. Kotler and Armstrong (2007) conducted a research to study factors affecting consumer buying behavior. Amongst all the factors, physical factors, social factors, cultural factors
After distinguishing motivational factors from satisfaction factors, motivational factors should be maintained in a list for further processing while satisfaction factors should be ignored. Step 3: Factors that are not being fulfilled at work place should be short listed. These are the factors that need to be addressed in order to improve the
akuntansi musyarakah (sak no 106) Ayat tentang Musyarakah (Q.S. 39; 29) لًََّز ãَ åِاَ óِ îَخظَْ ó Þَْ ë Þٍجُزَِ ß ا äًَّ àَط لًَّجُرَ íَ åَ îظُِ Ûاَش
Collectively make tawbah to Allāh S so that you may acquire falāḥ [of this world and the Hereafter]. (24:31) The one who repents also becomes the beloved of Allāh S, Âَْ Èِﺑاﻮَّﺘﻟاَّﺐُّ ßُِ çﻪَّٰﻠﻟانَّاِ Verily, Allāh S loves those who are most repenting. (2:22
several kinds of factors: (1) individual factors (per ceptions, self-image, peers); (2) social factors (societal norms); (3) environmental factors, such as advertising and economics; and (4) cultural factors, such as traditional uses of tobacco, acculturation, and the historical context of the tobacco industry in various communities.
found a pair of factors. Always start dividing by 1, then 2, etc. Example 1. Factors of 6 ( we write as: F6) 1 x 6 2 x 3 Factors of 6 1, 2, 3, 6 (arrange factors from smallest to biggest). Example 2: Factors of 15 (F15) 1 x 15 3 x 5 Factors of 15 1, 3, 5, 15 8.
(a)Size and Book-to-Market (b)Size and Investment Figure:Sum of generalized correlation ˆbetween estimated 3 PCA factors and 3 proximate factors Problem in interpreting factors: Factors only identi ed up to invertible linear transformations. Generalized correlation measures how many factors two sets have in common.
elements and factors with some collaboration and integration across systems Structural Elements and Factors 68-100 Structural Elements and Factors 101-133 Has all structural elements and factors, with strong coordination and integration across multiple factors Structural Elements and Factors 134-168 Leading, example for other counties/regions
