Community Characteristics And Demographic Development .
Community Characteristics and Demographic Development:Three Württemberg Communities, 1558-1914 *Sheilagh Ogilvie, Markus Küpker, and Janine MaegraithFaculty of EconomicsUniversity of Cambridge* Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Roland Deigendesch, Timothy Guinnane, andDaniel Kirn for their stimulating comments on an earlier version of this paper, but absolvethem from responsibility for any errors that might remain. We also gratefully acknowledgethe financial support of the Leverhulme Trust (Research Grant F/09 722/A) and the Economicand Social Science Research Council (RES-062-23-0759).
AbstractDemographic behaviour is influenced not just by attributes of individuals but also bycharacteristics of the communities in which those individuals live. A project on ‘Economy,Gender, and Social Capital in the German Demographic Transition’ is analyzing the longterm determinants of fertility by carrying out family reconstitutions of three Württembergcommunities (Auingen, Ebhausen, and Wildberg) between c. 1558 and 1914. A relatedproject on ‘Human Well-Being and the “Industrious Revolution”: Consumption, Gender andSocial Capital in a German Developing Economy, 1600-1900’ is using marriage and deathinventories to investigate how consumption interacted with production and demographicbehaviour in two of these communities. This paper examines the historical, political,institutional, geographical, and economic attributes of the communities analyzed in theseprojects and discusses their potential effects. The aim is to generate testable hypotheses andrelevant independent variables for subsequent econometric analyses of demographicbehaviour.JEL Classifications:N0; N33; N43; N53; N63; N73; N93; J1; J13; O13; O15Keywords:economic history; demography; fertility; gender; social capital;institutions; politics; geography; occupational structure; Germany
Table of ContentsList of MapsiList of TablesiiList of FiguresiiiList of AbbreviationsivCoinage, Weights, and Measuresv1. Introduction12. Location, Size, and Aggregate Population33. History, Politics, and War123.1. Medieval Origins123.2. The Long Sixteenth Century (c. 1500 – 1618)193.3. The Thirty Years War (1618 – 1648)253.4. The Long Eighteenth Century (1648 – 1789)333.5. The Long Nineteenth Century (1789 – 1914)384. Social Institutions484.1. State Institutions484.2. Community Institutions554.3. Guilds and Merchant Associations724.4. Religious Institutions834.4.1. Confessional Affiliation834.4.2. Church Administration and Jurisdiction874.4.3. Pietism954.5. Educational Institutions1024.6. Welfare Institutions114
5. Natural Endowments and Infrastructure1245.1. Location and Altitude1255.2. Geology and Soil1275.3. Weather and Climate1305.4. Water Sources1325.5. Roads1445.6. Railways1475.7. Post, Telegraph, Telephone, and Newspapers1526. Occupational Structure1556.1. Cross-Sectional Analysis1566.2. Longitudinal Analysis1607. Agriculture1747.1. Natural Endowments for Agriculture1777.2. Technological Challenges for Agriculture1847.3. Efforts to Improve Agriculture by Educated Reformers1897.4. Institutional Preconditions for Agricultural Development1937.4.1. Manorial Restrictions1947.4.2. Communal Regulation of Arable Cultivation1967.4.3. Communal Regulation of Pastoral Production2057.5. Potential Effects of Agriculture on Demographic Behaviour8. Industry2082118.1. Wool Textiles: Woollens and Worsteds2128.2. Linen Textiles2248.3. Centralized Industry: Manufactories and Factories2289. Conclusion242Bibliography245Appendix: Timeline of Historical Events and Developments258
List of Maps1.Eighteenth-Century Württemberg Showing Locations of Wildberg,Ebhausen, Münsingen, and Auingen42.Württemberg 1810-194563.The District of Wildberg in the Eighteenth Century564.The District of Nagold in the Nineteenth Century585.The District of Münsingen in the Nineteenth Century596.The Swabian Jura Water Supply (Albwasserversorgung), 1871 – 18811427.The Württemberg Railway Network before 18671478.The Nagold Valley Railway (Nagoldtalbahn)1499.The ‘Altensteigerle’ Narrow-Gauge Railway through Ebhausen15110.The Münsinger Hart in the Present Day18211.The Area of the Calwer Moderation, 1650 – 1797217i
List of Tables1.Population of Württemberg, Austria, Prussia, Stuttgart, and the ThreeCommunities, Selected Years, c. 1200-c. 191882.Children Attending School in the Town of Wildberg, by Sex, 1676-18021073.Children Attending School in the Village of Ebhausen, by Sex, 1601-18021094.Children Attending School in the Villages of the District of Wildberg, bySex, 1601-1802110Ability to Sign Name, by Sex, in Wildberg and Various OtherWürttemberg Communities, 1690-18401126.Dependence on Different Economic Activities, District of Wildberg, 17361577.Development of Occupational Recording in Parish Registers, Wildberg,Ebhausen, and Auingen, 1558-1914161Full-Time Farmer (Bauer) as an Occupational Designation, Wildberg,Ebhausen, and Auingen, 1670-1914163Day-Labourer (Tagelöhner) as an Occupational Designation, Wildberg,Ebhausen, and Auingen, 1670-1914166Worsted-Weaver (Zeugmacher) as an Occupational Designation,Wildberg, Ebhausen, and Auingen, 1670-1914171Linen-Weaver (Leineweber) as an Occupational Designation, Wildberg,Ebhausen, and Auingen, 1670-1914173Share of the Labour Force in Agriculture, Württemberg and OtherEuropean Countries, 1750-1910176Yield Ratios in Württemberg and Other European Countries, 1500-18401885.8.9.10.11.12.13.ii
List of Figures1.Total Population in Wildberg, Ebhausen, and Auingen, c. 1580-c. 1920102.Burials in Wildberg, Ebhausen, and Auingen, 1680-1715353.The Vicious Cycle of Agriculture and the Challenges of Reform inNineteenth-Century Württemberg185Total Worsted-Weavers in Wildberg, Ebhausen, and the Whole District,1590-1862216Male Worsted-Weavers in Wildberg, Ebhausen, and the Whole District,1640-1850220Female Worsted-Weavers in Wildberg, Ebhausen, and the Whole District,1640-17602214.5.6.iii
List of archiv StuttgartLandeskirchliches Archiv StuttgartPfarrarchiv AuingenPfarrarchiv EbhausenPfarrarchiv Wildberg(Central State Archive Stuttgart)(State Church Archive Stuttgart)(Parish Archive Auingen)(Parish Archive Ebhausen)(Parish Archive Wildberg)Kirchenkonventsprotokolle(community church court minutes)Sources:KKPArchival file ctoversoZettel(archive parcel)(volume)(folio)(front side of sheet)(reverse side of sheet)(loose piece of paper)Document transcription conventions:ins. followed by word(s) enclosed in square brackets these words were inserted afteroriginal text was written (usually above the line or in the page-margin)gstr. followed by word(s) enclosed in square brackets these words are crossed out indocumentiv
Coinage, Weights, and MeasuresCoinage1 Taler (Rtl.)1 Gulden (fl.)1 Batzen1 Kreuzer (kr., x)1 Pfennig (pf.)1 Pfundheller (lbhlr.) 1.5 Gulden60 Kreuzer4 Kreuzer3 Pfennig2 Heller (h.)20 Schilling (sch.) 6 Heller 43 Kreuzer467.59 gram100 Pfund 0.97 pounds 8 Simri22.15 litres 177.2 litres 0.32 hectare 0.78 acreWeights1 Pfund (lb.)1 Centner (C.)Cubic measure (grain)1 Scheffel (schf.)1 Simri (sri.)Area measure (land)1 Morgenv
1. IntroductionDemographic behaviour is influenced not just by human biology and attributes of individualpersons, such as wealth and occupation, but also by characteristics of local communities –factors specific to the particular village or town in which people are living. Such communitycharacteristics work in two ways. First, there are exogenous features – natural endowments ofthe locality and events that strike it from the outside, without its inhabitants having anysignificant capacity to affect these features. Second, there are endogenous characteristics –features of the locality arising from, or significantly shaped by, collective decisions reachedby the community or its decision-makers.The exogenous influences seem at first sight to be straightforward. Different localitiesexperience different historical events – for example, territorial annexation, military invasion,revolution, or fire. Alternatively, different localities experience the same event, but atdifferent times – thus ultimately all communities may get clean drinking-water, good roads,agrarian reforms, or railway links, but they get them decades or even generations apart.Endogenous community influences work through collective decisions or shared norms of theinhabitants. Thus a community may hold particular norms – or embrace particular decisions –about religion, education, women’s status, child labour, poor relief, extra-marital sexuality, orpermission to marry. Such norms can be self-sustaining and will influence demographicdecisions both directly (through mandating marriage age or family size) and indirectly(through altering the costs or benefits of fertility). Even apparently exogenous influences mayturn out to be partly endogenous, when a community decides collectively on whether to resistinvaders, set up fire brigades, organize revolts, reform agrarian institutions, or pay forconnection to infrastructure.This paper examines those community characteristics with a potential to affect demographicdecisions for three German communities – a small town and two villages – between 1558 and1
1914. A project on ‘Economy, Gender, and Social Capital in the German DemographicTransition’ is analysing long-term fertility change in Europe over three centuries byreconstructing demographic behaviour in these three communities.1 It uses the technique of‘family reconstitution’, which involves linking birth, marriage and death records toreconstitute all families in each community over the entire period of analysis. The techniqueof ‘record linkage’ is then applied to link socio-economic information from otherdocumentary sources such as censuses and tax registers to the reconstituted families. Thismakes it possible to analyse the socio-economic determinants of fertility, on the level of bothcommunities and individuals.A subsequent project on ‘Human Well-Being and the “Industrious Revolution”:Consumption, Gender and Social Capital in a German Developing Economy, 1600-1900’builds on the family reconstitution database for two of these communities – the small townand one of the villages.2 It investigates how changes in consumer demand and time allocation– particularly by women and the poor – contributed to economic development on the microlevel over three centuries (c. 1600 – c. 1900). It links inventories of ordinary people’spossessions with information (derived from family reconstitutions, tax registers and censuses)on their occupation, land-ownership, wealth, office-holding, sex, literacy, fertility, mortality,and membership in communities, guilds and voluntary associations (‘social capital’). Thesedata will then be analysed statistically to identify the interactions between consumption,production, and demographic behaviour in a historical developing economy.A necessary first step in the analysis is to understand the community-level characteristics thathad the potential to affect individual and group behaviour. This paper examines the historical,1This project has been supported at the University of Cambridge for three years (1.1.2005-31.12.2007)by a generous grant from the Leverhulme Trust (F/09 722/A). For further details, s/germandemography/.2This project is supported at the University of Cambridge for three years (1.1.2008-31.12.2012) by agenerous grant from the Economic and Social Science Research Council (RES-062-23-0759). Forfurther details, see ject-English.pdf.2
political, institutional, geographical, and economic attributes of the communities analysed inthese projects, and discusses their potential effects, with a specific focus on demographicbehaviour. The aim is to generate testable hypotheses for later econometric analyses of thelongitudinal and cross-sectional determinants of demographic behaviour.2. Location, Size, and Aggregate PopulationThe three communities analysed here are the small town of Wildberg, the medium-sizedvillage of Ebhausen, and the small village of Auingen. Since the Middle Ages, all three havebeen part of the territory of Württemberg in south-western Germany. The locations ofWürttemberg, and the three communities analysed here, are shown in Map 1. Württembergwas a county (Grafschaft) of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (HeiligeRömische Reich Deutscher Nation) from the twelfth century to 1495, and then a Duchy(Herzogtum) of the Empire from 1495 to 1806. Membership in the Empire meant thatWürttemberg was subject to some legitimate intervention in its internal affairs by Imperialinstitutions, as discussed below in Section 4.1.3 After the abolition of the Old Empire in 1806,Württemberg became a Kingdom (Königreich) and an independent state, although still part ofthe new, 39-member German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) established in 1815. In 1871,the Kingdom of Württemberg became part of the newly united Imperial Germany (DeutscheKaiserreich), which it remained until the end of the First World War.Württemberg is categorized as a ‘German territory of the second rank’ – neither a giganticcomposite state such as Brandenburg-Prussia nor one of the small German territoriesbelonging to Free Imperial Cities, free nobles, or religious houses.4 The territorialfragmentation of southwest Germany meant that before 1806 Württemberg shared borderswith (and in some cases included within its own boundaries enclaves of) territory belonging to34For a detailed discussion, see Ogilvie (1999b).Vann (1984), 36.3
Map 1:Eighteenth-Century Württemberg Showing Locations of Wildberg, Ebhausen, Münsingen, and AuingenSource: Ogilvie (1997), Map 1, p. xxi.4
Baden-Baden, Baden-Durlach, Fürstenberg, Hohenzollern, Electoral Palatinate, AnteriorAustria (the Habsburg possessions in southwest Germany), various Free Imperial Cities,various other temporal principalities (e.g. belonging to Free Imperial Knights), and variousecclesiastical principalities. It also possessed its own territorial enclave of Mömpelgard(Montbéliard) inside what is now France. The territorial reorganization associated with theabolition of the Empire in 1806 gave rise to a simplified geopolitical situation forWürttemberg, as can be seen from Map 2. After 1806, Württemberg shared a boundary on theeast with Bavaria, and on the other three sides with Baden, with the exception of a shortdistance on the south, where it bordered Hohenzollern and Lake Constance. Before 1806,Württemberg had a relatively modest territorial area of about 9,500 km², but after theterritorial transformations of the Napoleonic period, during which it incorporated manyneighbouring small principalities, Württemberg comprised more than double that area (19,500km²), with a maximum north-south length of 225 km and a maximum east-west breadth of160 km.5Map 1 shows the location of the communities under analysis – Wildberg, Ebhausen, andAuingen. All three communities are located 50-60 km from Stuttgart, the capital city ofWürttemberg. All three were in outlying regions of the territory – Wildberg and Ebhausennear the border with Baden in the west and Auingen near the border with the territoriallyfragmented region of Swabia lying between Württemberg and Bavaria in the east. Wildbergand Ebhausen are located in the Württemberg section of the range of forested hills known asthe Black Forest (Schwarzwald): the small town of Wildberg lies 45 km southwest ofStuttgart, and the village of Ebhausen 9 km further southwest along the Nagold River. Thevillage of Auingen, by contrast, is located very close to the small town of Münsingen, about60 km southeast of Stuttgart in the Swabian Jura (Schwäbische Alb), a medium-sizedmountainous plateau in south-eastern Württemberg. All three communities studied here are5Boelcke (1989), 16; Boelcke (1987), 164.5
Map 2:Württemberg 1810-1945Source: The map and accompanying text as published in Wikipedia Commons by Benutzer:Ssch, at berg.png#file (accessed 26Feb. 2009) are licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html.6
thus located at a similar latitude (48 ), but Auingen lies 80 km to the east of Wildberg andEbhausen.Württemberg was also a ‘territory of the second rank’ as far as population was concerned.Table 1 displays its population alongside those of central European territories of the ‘firstrank’ (Austria and Prussia), for selected years between c. 1200 and 1918. Over the sixcenturies between c. 1200 and 1806, the population of Württemberg experienced no overallincrease, lying at something between 600,000 and 700,000. By comparison, Austria had fourtimes the population of Württemberg in 1525 in 1600, around seven times its population in1700, and still around six times its population in 1790. Only in the course of the nineteenthcentury did Württemberg begin to catch up, and that was mainly because of its territorialacquisitions after 1806. Even then, Austria had between two and three times the population ofWürttemberg throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The contrast withPrussia was even greater. Around 1700, Prussia had about five times the population ofWürttemberg, rising to nine times in 1790 and 1840, 13 times in 1870, and 16 times itspopulation in 1910.This cannot be ascribed to Württemberg’s demographic losses during the Thirty Years War(1618-1648). It is certainly true that Württemberg’s population underwent very seriousdecline in the seventeenth century, falling to an estimated low of about 140,000 in 1654,immediately after the war ended.6 It took until around 1725 before Württemberg recoveredthe population level it had reached in 1600, before the war.7 But Brandenburg-Prussiasuffered even more serious population losses in the Thirty Years War; it recovered from themmuch more quickly, especially in the eighteenth century when it combined rapid internalpopulation growth with the acquisition of populous new territories such as Silesia.67Vann (1984), 36.Schaab (2000), 462.7
Table 1:Population of Württemberg, Austria, Prussia, Stuttgart, and the Three Communities,Selected Years, c. 1200 - c. 1918Year1200c. 14001470150015251587c. 1600c. 162516341641-21654c. 1675c. 170017071713c. 1725174417541773178017901796180618121816c. 0519101914Württembergc. 0.65 enc. 200c. 2405,000c. 1.50 mc. 0.45 mc. 9,00010,000c. 1.80 mc. 0.47 mc. 0.11 mc. 0.14 m0.32 m0.34 m 8,327c. 4,500c. 2.10 m13,00016,0001.60 mc. 11,3002.40 m2.73 m0.62 m0.64 m0.65 m1.38 m1.41 m1.59 m1.65 m1.74 m1.68 m1.72 m1.78 m1.82 m1.88 m1.97 m2.04 m2.17 m2.44 m2.53 m2.97 m3.05 mc. 17,000c. 19,0005.40 m8.70 m9.70 m19,500c. 3.05 mc. 3.20 mc. 3.48 m3.65 mc. 3.88 mc. 4.07 mc. 4.52 m21,00010.35 mc. 12.73 m13.51 m14.93 mc. 16.94 m18.49 mc. 19.26 m24.60 m4.94 m5.39 m5.97 m27.00 m6.61 m6.77 m40.16 m29,143c. 17,303139,817c. 170,000249,443286,218c. 308,436c. 830c. 2901,342531624c. 165c. 300c. 350c. 3504352884141202233c. 3991,351349c. 410440424424c. 0745364065207305320348Sources: For Stuttgart and Württemberg, see Boelcke (1987), 68-9, 95, 165, 215-16; Hippel (1992), 505, 635;Schaab (2000), 495; http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einwohnerentwicklung von Stuttgart. For Wildberg, Ebhausenand Auingen, see LKA, Synodusprotokolle (1584-1822); HStAS, A 281 Kirchenvisitationsakten (1563, 1599,1601-1806); StAL E
2 This project is supported at the University of Cambridge for three years (1.1.2008-31.12.2012) by a generous grant from the Economic a
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