Geology For Civil Engineers

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GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

TITLES OF RELATED INTERESTConstruction Methods and PlanningJ.R.IllingworthContaminated Land—Problems and SolutionsEdited by T.CairneyEngineering the Channel TunnelEdited by C.KirklandEngineering Treatment of SoilsF.G.BellFoundations of Engineering GeologyA.C.WalthamGeology of Construction MaterialsJ.F.PrenticePile Design and Construction PracticeM.J.TomlinsonPiling EngineeringW.G.K.Fleming, A.J.Weltman, M.F.Randolph and W.K.ElsonRock Mechanics for Underground MiningB.H.G.Brady and E.T.BrownRock Slope EngineeringE.Hoek and J.W.BrayRutley’s Elements of MineralogyC.D.GribbleThe Stability of SlopesE.N.Bromhead

Soil MechanicsR.F.CraigUnderground Excavations in RockE.Hoek and E.T.BrownFor details of these and other titles, contact the Marketing DepartmentE & FN Spon, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE, UK.Tel: 44(0) 171 842 2180

GEOLOGY FOR CIVILENGINEERSSecond EditionA.C.McLean C.D.GribbleUniversity of Glasgow

First published 1979 by E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & HallSecond edition 1985This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis orRoutledge's collection of thousands of eBooks please go towww.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” 1979 A.C.McLean; 1979, 1985 C.D.GribbleAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced orutilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, nowknown or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or inany information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writingfrom the publishers.British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 0-203-36215-2 Master e-book ISBNISBN 0-203-37473-8 (Adobe e-Reader Format)ISBN 0-419-16000-0 (pbk)

zvviiThis book isdedicated to the memory ofDr Adam McLean

zvviiiPreface to the second editionAdam McLean and I were asked by Roger Jones of Allen & Unwin to consider producinga second edition of our book after the first edition had been published for a few years.Critical appraisals of the first edition were sought, and I am most grateful to ProfessorVan Dine and Dr Drummond for their many detailed and helpful comments. I should alsoparticularly like to thank Dr Bill French, who pointed out where corrections wererequired and also where additions (and subtractions) to the text could gainfully be madewithout changing the original flavour of our book. I have incorporated most of thesehelpful suggestions and hope that the text has been improved, but any mistakes andinaccuracies are mine.At the beginning of the revision Adam McLean became ill, and the illness gotprogressively worse until, in March 1983, he died. In memory of all the enjoyment wehad with the first edition, I should like to dedicate the second edition to Adam with myrespect.Colin GribbleGlasgow, September 1983

zvixPreface to the first editionThe impulse to write this book stemmed from a course of geology given by us toengineering undergraduates at the University of Glasgow. The course has changed, andwe hope improved, during the twenty years since one of us was first involved with it. Itwas essentially a scaled-down version of an introductory course to scienceundergraduates; it is now radically different both in content and in the mode of teachingit. Our main thought, as we gradually reshaped it, was to meet the special interests andprofessional needs of budding civil engineers. It is a matter for serious debate as towhether time should be found within an engineering course for classes of a broad culturalnature. Our experience in teaching indicates that the relevance of subject matter to thevocation of those taught usually increases their interest and enthusiasm. Furthermore, inengineering curricula which are being crowded by new and professionally useful topics,we doubt whether a place would have been found for a general course on geology whichdiscussed, for example, the evolution of the vertebrates or the genetic relationship of thevarious basic plutonic rocks. On the other side of the scale, we have firm beliefs thateducated men and women should be aware of the Theory of Natural Selection and itssupport from the fossil record, and should be aware of other major scientific conceptssuch as plate tectonics. We have found some space for both of these in our book. Otherapparent digressions from what is obviously relevant may serve a professional purpose.For example, civil engineers must have an insight into how geologists reach conclusionsin making a geological map, in order to evaluate the finished map. Similarly, they shouldappreciate how and why geologists differentiate between (say) gabbro and diorite, notbecause these differences are important for most engineering purposes but so that theycan read a geological report sensibly and with the ability to sift the relevant from theirrelevant information.Our course and this book are essentially an introduction to geology for civil engineers,which is adequate for the needs of their later careers, and on which further courses ofengineering geology, soil mechanics or rock mechanics can be based. They are notconceived as a course and text on engineering geology. We have, however, extended thescope of the book beyond what is geology in the strict sense to include engineeringapplications of geology. This is partly to demonstrate the relevance of geology toengineering, and partly in the expectation that the book, with its appendices, will alsoserve as a useful handbook of facts and methods for qualified engineers and otherprofessionals who use geology. The reactions of the majority of those who reviewed ourfirst draft reassured us that our ideas were not peculiar to ourselves, and that we were notthe only teachers of geology who felt the need for a textbook tailored to them. Otherviews ranged from a preference for altering the book to make it a comprehensive accountof the whole of geology largely devoid of material on engineering, to a preference for azvx

more radical change along the lines we were following, which would have produced anintroductory text in engineering geology rather than geology. The balance of opinionseemed reasonably close to our own prescription, though we are grateful for the manyconstructive suggestions that have led to major changes of content and arrangement aswell as minor amendments. If we have not ended at the centre of the many opinions thatcolleagues and friends have kindly given us, it is because at the end of the day we havespecial interests and views ourselves, and it is our book. We hope that you will find ituseful and readable.ADAM McLEANCOLIN GRIBBLEGlasgow, August 1978

zvxiAcknowledgementsWe wish to thank the friends and colleagues who assisted us generously and patiently bytheir advice, by their critical reading of our text and by their encouragement. Weconsidered carefully all the points that they made, and many significant improvementsfrom our original draft are witness to this, just as any persistent failings, and any errors,are our own responsibility. A special thank you is due to Professor W.Dearman of theUniversity of Newcastle, Professor P.McL.Duff of the University of Strathclyde, DrI.Hamilton of Paisley College of Technology, Dr D. Wilson of the University ofLiverpool, and Professor Boyd of the University of Adelaide, for reading critically theentire text and making a host of useful comments. We were fortunate in being able todiscuss particular sections of the book with friends, whose specialised knowledge was asource of expert opinion and information, and we thank all of them sincerely. Theyinclude Mr R.Eden, Assistant Director BGS; Mr N. Dron of Ritchies Equipment Limited,Stirling; Mr C.I.Wilson, Dunblane; and Dr G.Maxwell of the University of Strathclyde.We are grateful to Professor B.E.Leake of our own department at the University ofGlasgow for help and encouragement; to other colleagues there, particularly Dr J. Hall,Dr B.J.Bluck and Dr W.D.I.Rolfe; to the two typists, Mrs D.Rae and MrsD.MacCormick, who prepared the draft copy; and to the wife of one of us, Mrs BeatriceMcLean, who did most of the preparation of the Index-Glossary as well as offering helpat all stages. Last, but not least, we acknowledge the courteous shepherding of Mr RogerJones of George Allen & Unwin from the start of it all, to this point.The second edition could not have been produced without the very great help andguidance I received from Roger Jones and Geoffrey Palmer of George Allen & Unwin. Ialso wish to thank Mary Sayers, whose careful editing of the revised text unquestionablyimproved the final product, and Beatrice McLean who helped with the Index-Glossaryfor this edition. Finally I should like to thank Professor Bernard Leake of my owndepartment for his help and encouragement at a particularly difficult time, Dr BrianBluck for his guidance on sedimentary rocks and processes, the secretaries of GlasgowUniversity Geology Department—Irene Wells, Dorothy Rae, Irene Elder and MaryFortune—who typed the entire book a second time, and my sister, Elizabeth, who proofread the entire book.C.D.G.

zvxiiContentsPreface to the second editionviiPreface to the first editionviiiAcknowledgementsx1 Introduction12 Minerals and rocks53 Superficial deposits634 Distribution of rocks at and below the surface99zvxiv5 Subsurface (ground) water6 Geological exploration of an engineering site154179zvxv7 Rocks and civil engineering8 Principal geological factors affecting certain engineering projects218250Appendix A Descriptions of some important soil groups274Appendix B Hydraulic properties and pumping tests of an aquifer279zvxviAppendix C The British Geological Survey and other government GeologicalSurveysAppendix D Exploring for old coal workings in the United Kingdom282286Appendix E The time—distance graph of first arrivals from a velocity model with289two layers separated by a horizontal interface, and where V 2 is greaterthan V 1292Appendix F Quality of aggregatesAppendix G Aggregate quality and tests in different countries300Appendix H Systematic description of rocks and rock discontinuities304Index311

List of tables2.1 Mohs’ scale of hardness2.2 Descriptive terms for the lustre of minerals82.3 Descriptive terms for crystal habit2.4 Degrees of transparency98102.5 Descriptive terms for the tenacity of minerals2.6 Physical properties of some dark-coloured silicate minerals112.7 Physical properties of light-coloured silicate minerals2.8 Atterberg limits f or common clay minerals1713262.9 Physical properties of some ore minerals2.10 Physical properties of some non-metallic, non-silicate minerals272.11 Mineral crystallisation from a magma2.12 Minerals present in the four main groups of igneous rock312.13 Classification of normal (calc-alkaline) igneous rocks2.14 Engineering properties of some unweathered igneous rocks372.15 The main f field dif f erences between lava flows ws and sills2.16 Mechanical composition scales for sands and gravels412.17 Clastic sedimentary rock classification based on grain size2.18 Engineering properties of some unweathered sedimentary rocks502.19 Relationships between metamorphic grade, index minerals and parental rocktypes2.20 Textural classification of metamorphic rocks2.21 Engineering properties of some common metamorphic rocks593.1 Descripti ve scheme f or grading the degree of weathering of a rock mass3.2 Descriptive scheme for boundary widths between layers of soil2932384956616170723.3 (a) Designation of layers of soils by capital letters, with numbers to designate73gradational layers. (b) Letters used to denote special properties of a layer of soil743.4 Residual soil classification4.1 Some symbols for geotechnical maps and plans1014.2 The geological timescale108

4.3 Unstable isotopes of the most important elements used in the radiometric datingof minerals and rocks4.4 The Modified Mercalli Scale (1931) of earthquake intensity5.1 (a) Estimates of the Earth’s water supply. (b) Estimates of the daily circulationof part of this water in the planet’s hydrologic cycle of evaporation and returnto the oceans6.1 Typical values of longitudinal wave velocity V p6.2 Factors influencing core drilling1116.3 Sizes of coring bits and solid bits for percussive drilling6.4 Rock quality designation2117.1 Descriptive terms applied to the spacing of rock structures7.2 The engineering group classification of rocks2197.3 Porosity values of some common rock types7.4 Unconfined compressive strengths of the main rock types2267.5 Coeff icients of expansion of some rock aggregates7.6 Rock type percentages in three Scottish Midland Valley gravel pits2367.7 Abrasiveness of some rock types7.8 Discontinuity data2407.9 Data on rocks seen in Figure 7.148.1 Angles of frictional resistance (Ф) and unconfined compressive strengths ofsome common rock types8.2 Discontinuity data (see Appendix H)F.1 Particle shape description247F.2 Surface texture descriptionG.1 Aggregate tests: European standards equivalent to UK specifications293G.2 Aggregate tests: comparison of US and UK specificationsH.1 Descriptive scheme for discontinuity spacing in one direction301H.2 Descriptive terms for block 4

1Introduction1.1 Role of the engineer in the systematic exploration of a siteThe investigation of the suitability and characteristics of sites as they affect the designand construction of civil engineering works and the security of neighbouring structures islaid out in British Standard Code of Practice for site investigations (BS 5930:1981,formerly CP 2001). The sections on geology and site exploration define the minimumthat a professional engineer should know.The systematic exploration and investigation of a new site may involve five stages ofprocedure. These stages are:(1) preliminary investigation using published information and other existing data;(2) a detailed geological survey of the site, possibly with a photogeology study;(3) applied geophysical surveys to provide information about the subsurface geology;(4) boring, drilling and excavation to provide confirmation of the previous results, andquantitative detail, at critical points on the site; and(5) testing of soils and rocks to assess their suitability, particularly their mechanicalproperties (soil mechanics and rock mechanics), either in situ or from samples.In a major engineering project, each of these stages might be carried out and reported onby a consultant specialising in geology, geophysics or engineering (with a detailedknowledge of soil or rock mechanics). However, even where the services of a specialistconsultant are employed, an engineer will have overall supervision and responsibility forthe project. The engineer must therefore have enough understanding of geology to knowhow and when to use the expert knowledge of consultants, and to be able to read theirreports intelligently, judge their reliability, and appreciate how the conditions describedmight affect the project. In some cases the engineer can recognise common rock typesand simple geological structures, and knows where he can obtain geological informationfor his preliminary investigation. When reading reports, or studying geological maps, hemust have a complete understanding of the meaning of geological terms and be able tograsp geological concepts and arguments. For example, a site described in a geologicalreport as being underlain by clastic sedimentary rocks might be considered by a civilengineer to consist entirely of sandstones. However, clastic sedimentary rocks include avariety of different rock types, such as conglomerates, sandstones and shales ormudstones. Indeed it would not be unusual to find that the site under developmentcontained sequences of some of these different rock types—say, intercalated beds ofsandstone and shale, or sandstone with conglomerate layers. Each of these rock types hasdifferent engineering properties, which could affect many aspects of the development

Geology for civil engineers2work such as core drilling into, and excavation of, the rock mass, and deep piling into theunderlying strata.The systematic testing of the engineering properties of soils and rocks lies betweenclassical geology and the older disciplines of engineering, such as structures. It hasattracted the interest of, and contributions from, people with a first training in eithergeology or engineering, but has developed largely within departments of civil and miningengineering and is usually taught by staff there. These tests, and the advice about designor remedial treatment arising from them, are more naturally the province of the engineer,and fall largely outside the scope of this book. The reasons for this lie in the traditionalhabits and practices of both fields. The engineer’s training gives him a firm grounding inexpressing his conclusions and decisions in figures, and in conforming to a code ofpractice. He also has an understanding of the constructional stage of engineering projects,and can better assess the relevance of his results to the actual problem.These reasons for the traditional divisions of practice between geology and engineeringmust be qualified, however, by mentioning important developments during the lastdecade. An upsurge of undergraduate and postgraduate courses, specialist publicationsand services in engineering geology, initiated or sponsored by departments of geology orby bodies such as the Geological Society of London, has reflected an awakened interestin meeting fully the geological needs of engineers and in closing the gaps that existbetween the two disciplines.1.2 Relevance of geology to civil engineeringMost civil engineering projects involve some excavation of soils and rocks, or involveloading the Earth by building on it. In some cases, the excavated rocks may be used asconstructional material, and in others, rocks may form a major part of the finishedproduct, such as a motorway cutting or the site f or a reservoir. The feasibility, theplanning and design, the construction and costing, and the safety of a project may dependcritically on the geological conditions where the construction will take place. This isespecially the case in extended ‘greenfield’ sites, where the area affected by the projectstretches for kilometres, across comparatively undeveloped ground. Examples include theChannel Tunnel project and the construction of motorways. In a section of the M9motorway linking Edinburgh and Stirling that crosses abandoned oil-shale workings,realignment of the road, on the advice of government geologists, led to a substantialsaving. In modest projects, or in those involving the redevelopment of a limited site, thedemands on the geological knowledge of the engineer or the need for geological advicewill be less, but are never negligible. Site investigation by boring and by testing samplesmay be an adequate preliminary to construction in such cases.1.3 The science of geologyGeology is the study of the solid Earth. It includes the investigation of the rocks f

Introduction3forming the Earth (petrology) and of how they are distributed (their structure), and theirconstituents (mineralogy and crystallography). Geochemistry is a study of thechemistry of rocks and the distribution of major and trace elements in rocks, rock suites,and minerals. This can lead to an understanding of how a particular rock has originated(petro genesis), and also, in the broadest sense, to a knowledge of the chemistry ofthe upper layers of the Earth.The distribution of rocks at the Earth’s surface is found by making a geological survey(that is, by geological mapping) and is recorded on geological maps. This informationabout rocks is superimposed on a topographic base map. Knowledge of the nature andphysical conditions of the deeper levels of the planet can be gained only by the specialmethods of

engineering geology, soil mechanics or rock mechanics can be based. They are not conceived as a course and text on engineering geology. We have, however, extended the scope of the book beyond what is geology in the strict sense to include engineering applications of geology.

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