Social Beings Core Motives In Social Psychology Third Edition

Social BeingsCore Motives in Social PsychologyThird EditionSusan T. FiskePrinceton UniversityWILEY

ContentsPREFACE TO FIRST EDITIONxviPREFACE TO SECOND EDITIONPREFACE TO THIRD EDITIONABOUT THE AUTHORxxxxixxiiChapter 1INTRODUCTION: ADAPTIVE MOTIVES FOR SOCIAL SITUATIONS,VIA CULTURES AND BRAINS lWhat Is Social Psychology? 1A Classic Definition 4Levels of Analysis 5Situationism 7The Major Intellectual Contribution of Social Psychology 7Situations versus Personalities 9The Power of Situations as an Evolutionary Adaptation 10Summary of Situationism 13A Note on the Social Brain 14Core Social Motives 14Five Unifying Themes in Social Psychology 14Belonging 16Understanding 18Controlling 20Enhancing Seif 22Trusting 23Summary of Core Social Motives 25Culture and the Core Social Motives 26Summary of Culture and the Core Social Motives 29Key Features of Social Psychology's Approach 29Broad Scope 31Cultural Mandate 32Scientific Methods 33Search for Wisdom 34Chapter Summary 34Suggestions for Further Reading 34v

viContentsChapter 2SCIENTIFIC METHODS FOR STUDYING PEOPLE ININTERACTION37Forming Hypothese«: Conceptualization 38Application as a Source of Hypotheses 38Theory as a Source of Hypotheses 40Hypotheses 42Variables 43Conceptual Variables 44Summary of Hypotheses 45Testing Hypotheses: Operationalization 45Operational Variables 45Levels of a Variable 46Scientific Standards in Operationalizing Variables 47From Concept to Operation: Some Examples 50Summary of Testing Hypotheses via Operationalization 52Choosing a Research Strategy 53Descriptive Research 53Correlational Research 57Experimental Research 63Methodological Challenges in Social Settings 73Expectancy Effects and Motives to Belong 73Participant Construal and Motives to Understand 74Demand Characteristics and Motives to Control 74Social Desirability and Motives to Self-Enhance 75Positivity Biases and Motives to Trust 75Summary of Methodological Challenges in Social Settings 75Ethics in Research 76Ethical Dilemmas 77Ethical Decisions 77Summary of Ethics in Research 78Chapter Summary 78Suggestions for Further Reading 79Chapter 3ORDINARY PERSONOLOGY: FIGURING OUT WHY PEOPLE DOWHATTHEYDO 81What is Ordinary Personology? 83Conceptual Definition 83Operational Definitions 88Core Social Motives 89Summary of Definitions and Core Social Motives in Personology91

ContentsNonverbal Behavior: Understanding Feelings 91Conceptual and Operational Definitions 91Döing and Detecting Deception 93Attraction and Coordination 94Gaze, Attention, and Intention 95Summary of Nonverbal Behavior 96Attribution of Dispositions: Understanding TVaits 96Heider's Attribution Theory: The Naive Psychology of Traits 96Inferring Traits from Other People's Behaviors 100Inferring Dispositions from Our Own Behavior 108Summary of Dispositional Attribution Theories 112Errors and Biases in Attribution: Controlling and Self-Enhancing 113Believing Someone Is in Control: Ignoring the Hidden Power of Situations 113Explaining the Dispositional Bias in Attributions 116Self-Enhancing Attributions: Feeling Good by Credit and Blame 119Normative and Descriptive Models 122Mind Perception 122Chapter Summary 123Suggestion* for Further Reading 124Chapter 4SOCIAL COGNITION: MARING SENSE OF OTHERS125What is Social Cognition? 126Conceptual Definition 126Operational Definition 126Core Social Motives 127Summary of Definitions and Core Motives 132Accuracy and Inaccuracy: People Seek Good-Enough Understanding 132Accuracy of Impressions 132Inferences and Heuristics 137Summary of Accuracy and Inaccuracy 146Expectations: People Understand and Trust the Familiar 147Impression Formation before the Cognitive Revolution: A Tale of Two Processes 148Mental Representations in Other Domains of Psychology 151Kinds of Expectations 152Uses of Social Expectations 156Expectations Develop and Change 159Mental Representation of Specific Experience 160Summary of Expectations 161Goals, Automaticity, and Control: People Can't Always ControlWhat They Think 161Automaticity, the New Unconscious 163Goals That Prompt Automaticity and Control 170vif

viiiContentsChapter Summary 171Suggestions for Further Reading 172Chapter 5THE SELF: SOCIAL TO THE CORE175What is the Seif? 175Conceptual Definitions 177Operational Definitions 178Core Social Motives 180Summary of Definitions and Motives 182Self-Concepts: Understanding the Seif 183The Rieh, Elaborate, Complex Seif: The Seif Is Not a Bowling Ball 184The Coherent Seif: The Seif Is Not Just Scattered Bowling Pins 187How People Get to Know Themselves 189Self-Enhancement versus Self-Verification 193Cultural Differences: Interdependent and Independent Self-Concepts 196Summary of Self-Concepts 202Seif and Emotion: Enhancing the Seif 202Biases in Self-Esteem1 203Self-Discrepancy Theory 205Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory 208Affective Forecasting 210Summary of Seif and Emotion 210Seif and Behavior: Wanting to Belong 211Self-Presentation Contexts 211Strategie Self-Presentation 213Self-Monitoring 217Self-Regulation 219Chapter Summary 220Suggestions for Further Reading 221Chapter 6ATTITUDES AND PERSUASION: CHANGING HEARTSAND MINDS 223What are Attitudes? The Importance of Being Persuasive 224Conceptual Definitions 224Operational Definitions 226Core Social Motives as Functions of Attitudes 229Summary of Definitions and Motives 233How Attitudes Form via Affect First: Understanding What to Approach or Avoid 233Learning Theories 234Emotional Appraisal 237Mere Exposure 237

ContentsAutomatic and Implicit Attitudes 238The Importance of Affect and Emotion 239Can People Control Affectively Formed Attitudes? Prejudice as a Critical Case 240Summary of Attitüde Formation via Affect 248Attitüde Change via Discomfort with Contradiction: Understanding asCognitive Consistency 249Theories of Cognitive Consistency 249Dissonance Theory 250Summary of Attitüde Change via Discomfort 254Attitüde Change via Understanding Persuasive Communication 255Yale Communication and Persuasion Approach 255Dual-Process Persuasion Models 258Summary of Persuasive Communication 262When and Why Attitudes Matter: Predicting Behavior via Understandingand Belonging 262Attitudes Don't Always Predict Behavior 262When Attitudes Do Predict Behavior 264Summary of Attitude-Behavior Research 269Chapter Summary 269Suggestions for Further Reading 271Chapter 7ATTRACTION: 1NITIATING ROMANCE, FRIENDSHIP, ANDOTHER RELATIONSHIPS273Attraction in Daily Life and in Science 274Conceptual Definitions 274Operational Definitions 274Core Social Motives 276Summary of Definitions and Motives 277Mere Exposure 277Proximity 279Summary of Familiarity 280Physical Attractiveness: Liking Those Who Look Good (and Enhance Us) 280Images of Attractive People 281Functions of Physical Attractiveness Stereotypes 281Qualifications of Physical Attractiveness Effects 282Conclusion: Linking Physical Attractiveness to Other Principles 283Similarity: Liking Those Like Us (Understandable and Enhancing) 284Balancing Friends and Attitudes 284Becoming a Unit 286Complementarity in Attraction 288Explaining the Similarity-Attraction Principle 288Summary of Similarity 290ix

xContentsReciprocity: Liking Those Who Like (and Enhance) Us 290Direct Reciprocity 290Reciprocal Liking via Good Moods 292Reciprocal Liking via Rewards 292Exception to Reciprocity? Evoking Dissonance and Playing Hard to Get 293Reciprocity via Sex or Resources: Who Reciprocates What? 293Summary of Reciprocity 296Chapter Summary 296Suggestions for Further Reading 297Chapter 8CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS: PASSION, INTERDEPENDENCE,COMMITMENT, AND INTIMACY 299What is a Close Relationship? 299Conceptual Definitions 300Operational Definitions 306Variations: Love, Family, and Friendship across Culture, Age, Gender, and SexualOrientation 308Core Social Motives 311Summary of Definitions, Variations, and Motives 312Interdependence: Controlling and Trusting 312Interdependence, Control, and Emotion 313Commitment and Accommodation 319(Mis)handling Conflict 321Summary of Interdependence 323Attachment: Belonging and Trusting 324Theoretical Background 324Styles of Belonging: Attachment Models and Relationships 325Summary of Attachment 329Social Norms: Belonging and Understanding 330Equity and Exchange 330Communal and Exchange Relationships 331Relational Models Theory 332Summary of Norms 333Chapter Summary 333Suggestions for Further Reading 334Chapter 9HELPING: PROSOCIAL BEHAVIORWhat Is Prosocial Behavior? 335Conceptual Definitions 336Operational Definitions 336335

ContentsCore Social Motives 340Summary of Definitions and Motives 342Egoism Hypotheses: Purely Self-Enhancing and Controlling 342Kin Selection 343Social Learning 345Mood Protection 348Summary of Egoism Hypotheses 353Altruism Hypotheses: Maintaining Trust in the World as Benevolent 354Attributions of Responsibility 355Empathy, Sympathy, and Altruism 358Summary of Altruism Hypotheses 364Collectivism: Maintaining Group Belonging 365Similarity and Group Identity 366Nonns 368Individual Differences in Group Prosocial Orientation 369Summary of Collectivism Hypotheses 370Principlism: Moral Understanding 371Moral Reasoning 371Reasoning or Rationale? 374Personal Norms and Values 375Summary of Principlism Hypotheses 377Chapter Summary 378Suggestion; for Further Reading 380Chapter 10AGGRESSION: ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR381What Is Aggression? 382Conceptual Definitions 382Operational Definitions 384Chronic Social Issues: Aggression and Social Artifacts 386Core Social Motives 392Summary of Definitions, Social Issues, and Motives 395Cognitive Theories of Aggression: Antisocial Understanding 396Social Learning: Understanding How and When 396Cognitive Structural Approaches: Understanding What Habits of Aggressionto Acquire and Why 398Attributional Approaches: Understanding Why 403Summary of Cognitive Theories 406Conffict: Controlling Others 407Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis 407Controlling the Weak 409Controlling the Strang: Terrorism as Frustration-Aggression 411Summary of Control Theories 412xi

xiiContentsProtecting One's Image: Self-Enhancement 412Narcissistic Rage 412Culture of Honor 415Summary of Self-Enhancement Theories 415Chapter Summary 416Suggestions for Further Reading 417Chapter 11STEREOTYPING, PREJUDICE, AND DISCRIMINATION:SOCIAL BIASES419What are Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination? 420Conceptual Definitions 420Operational Definitions 422Core Social Motives 423Summary of Definitions and Motives 426Subtle Bias: (Mis)Understanding Others But Enhancing Seif 427Cool and Indirect Biases: Modern Racism and Subtle Prejudice 429Automatic Biases: Categorization and Associations 432Ambiguous Biases: Excuses 435Ambivalent Biases: Mixed Feelings 436Summary of Subtle Biases: Automatic, Ambiguous, Ambivalent 441Subtle Bias is Socially Useful: Belonging and Controlling 442Subtle Bias Predicts Deniable Discrimination 442Self-fulfilling Prophecies Create Confirming Behavior 443Socially Communicated Biases Build Ingroup Cohesion 444Accuracy Would Make Stereotypes Useful 445Summary and Conclusion Regarding Functions of Subtle Bias 449Blatant Bias: Belonging with the Ingroup, Controlling Outgroup Threats,and Enhancing the Seif 449Realistic Group Conflict Theory: Threat to Resources 449Social Identity, Self-Categorization, and Related Theories: Threat toGroup Identity 450Authoritarianism: Threat to Values 455Social Dominance Orientation: Threat to Group Status 457System Justification: Threats to the Status Quo 458Summary of Blatant Bias 459Effects of Bias on Targets: Belonging, Controlling, and Self-Enhancing 459Collective Identity and Well-being 459Attributional Ambiguity 461Stereotype Threat 463Summary of Target Responses to Bias 464Strategies for Change: Constructive Intergroup Contact Can Control Bias 465