How Languages Are Learned - SAINT DAVID
Fourth EditionHow Languages are Learned
LOXFORDU N I V E R S I T Y PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6DP,United KingdomOxford University Press is a department of theUniversity of üxford. It furthers the University'sobjective of excellence inresearch, scholarship,and education by publishing worldwide. Oxfordis a registered trade mark of Oxford UniversityPress in the UKand in certain other countries Oxford University Press 2013The moral rights of the author have been assertedFirst published in 20132017 2016 2015 2014 201310 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Al! rights reserved. No part of this publicationmay be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted, in any form or by any means,without the prior permission in writing of OxfordUniversity Press, or as expressly permitted by law,by licence or under terms agreed with theappropriate reprographics rights organization.Enquiries concerning reproduction outside thescope of the above should be sent to the ELTRights Department, Oxford University Press,at the address aboveYou must not circulate this work in any otherform and you must impose this sameconditionon any acquirerLinks to third party websites are provided byOxford in good faith and for information only.Oxford disclaims any responsibility for thematerials contained in any third partywebsitereferenced in this workPhotocopyingThe Publisher grants permission for thephotocopying of those pages marked'photocopiable' according to the followingconditions. Individual purchasers may makecopies for their own use or for use by classesthat they teach. School purchasers may makecopies for use by staff and students, but thispermission does not extend to additionalschools or branchesUnder no circumstances may any part of thisbook be photocopied for resaleI S BN :978 O 19 454126 8Printed in ChinaThis book is printed on paper from certifiedand well-managed sources.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT SThe authors and publisher are grate.ful to those who havegiven permission to reproduce thefo!lowing extracts andadaptations of copyright material: p.17 Extract fromLanguage Development and Language Disorders by loisBloom and Margaret lahey (1978). MacmillanPublishers; p.47 Figure from 'Sorne issues relatingto the Monitor Model' by Stephen Krashen, OnTESOL(1977). Reprinted by permission of TESOlInternational Association; p.49 Extract from'Constructing an acquisition-based procedurefor second language assessment' by ManfredPienemann, MalcolmJohnston, and Geoff BrindleyinStudies in SecondLanguage Acquisttion, Volume 10/2,pp.217-43 (1988). Reproduced by permission ofCambridge University Press; p.53 Extract from'Speeding up acquisition of hisfher: Explicit L1/L2contracts help' in Second Language Acquisttion andthe Younger Leamer: Child's Play? by Joanna White(2008) pp.193-228. With kind permission ofJohnBenjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia; p.54 Extract from 'Second languageinstruction does make a difference' by CatherineDoughty in Studies in Second Language Acquisition,Volume 13/4, pp.431-69 (1991). Reproduced bypermission of Cambridge University Press; p.136Reprinted from Intemationa!Jouma! of EducationalResearch, Volume 37 by Merrill Swain and SharonLapkin 'Talking it through: two French immersionlearners' response to reformulations' pp.285-304(2002) with permission from Elsevier; p.139 Extractfrom 'Corrective feedback and learner uptake'by Roy lyster and Leila Rauta in Studies in SecondLanguage Acquisition, Volume 19/1 pp.37-66 (1997).Reproduced by permission oíCambridgeUniversity Press.Cartoons by: Sophie Grillet Oxford UniversityPress 1993, 2005, and 2012.
tTo the teachers and students from whomwe have learned so much1
CONTENTSAcknowledgementsPreface to the fourth editionx1xiiilntroduction1Before we begin. .21 Language learning in early childhood5PreviewFirst language acquisitionThe first three years: Milestones and developmental sequencesThe pre-school yearsThe school yearsExplaining first language acquisitionThe behaviourist perspectiveThe innatist perspectivelnteractionist/developmental perspectivesLanguage disorders and delaysChildhood bilingualismSummarySuggestions for further reading2 Second language learningPreviewLearner characteristicsLearning conditionsStudying the language of second language learnersContrastive analysis, error analysis, and interlanguageDevelopmental sequencesMore about first language influenceVocabularyPragmaticsPhonologySampling learners' languageSummarySuggestions for further 68727273
viiiContents3 Individual differences in second language learningPreviewResearch on learner characteristicsIntelligenceLanguage learning aptitudeLearning stylesPersonalityAttitudes and motivationMotivation in the classroomIdentity and ethnic group affiliationLearner beliefsIndividual differences and classroom instructionAge and second language learningThe critica! period: More than just pronunciation?Intuitions of grammaticalityRate oflearningAge and second language instructionSummarySuggestions for further reading4 Explaining second language learningPreviewThe behaviourist perspectiveSecond language applications: Mimicry and memorizationThe innatist perspectiveSecond language applications: Krashen's 'Monitor Model'The cognitive perspectiveInformation processingUsage-based learningThe competition modelLanguage and the brainSecond language applications: Interacting, noticing,processing, and practisingThe sociocultural perspectiveSecond language applications: Learning by talkingSummarySuggestions for further 03103103104106108108110111113113118119120121
Contents5 Observing learning and teaching in the second language classroomPreviewNatural and instructional settingsIn natural acquisition settingsIn structure-based instructional settingsIn communicative instructional settingsObservation schemesClassroom comparisons: Teacher-student interactionsClassroom comparisons: Student-student interactionsCorrective feedback in the dassroomQ uestions in the dassroomEthnographySummarySuggestions far further reading1231231231241261271291291351391451491511526 Second language learning in the classroomPreviewProposals far teaching1 Get it right from the beginning2 Just listen . . . and read3 Let's talk4 Get two far one5 Teach what is teachable6 Get it right in the endAssessing the proposalsSummarySuggestions far further reading1531531531541591651711771821941971987 Popular ideas about language learning revisitedPreviewReflecting on the popular ideas: Learning from 27249201201212lX
PREFACE TO THEFOURTH EDITIONHow Languages Are Learned (HLAL) started out as a series of professionaldevelopment workshops for teachers in Quebec, Canada, where we bothworked for many years. Three editions of the book have now travelled farfrom those origins. When we were working on the first edition in the 1980sand 1990s we were still in the early days of remarkable growth of research insecond language acquisition. In updating the research for each new edition,the decisions about what to include have grown more diflicult. Keeping thebook to a reasonable length has often meant choosing between classics in thefield and important new studies, of which there are now so many. In thisedition, we have annotated sorne 'Suggestions for further reading' at the endof each chapter. We encourage readers to follow these readings and the reference list to deepen their understanding of topics that we can only introducehere.In this fourth edition of HLAL, we have added 'Questions for reflection' atthe end of each chapter, and we have included sorne new 'Activities' that givereaders opportunities to explore sorne of the topics. Another new feature ofthis edition is a companion website which contains additional activi ties,readings, and other web-based material and resources to enhance yourreading and understanding of the contents of the book. It will also provideopportunities for readers to interact with others and to share their ideas forteaching and learning languages.The website for How Languages are Learned can be accessed atwww.oup.com/elt/teacher/hlal.We are currendy working on a new series of books for teachers, the OxfordKey Conceptsfar the Language Classroom. Each volume, written by a differentauthor, will focus on a specific topic (such as assessment, content-based language teaching, literacy, and oral interaction), reviewing the relevant researchand linking the findings to classroom practice. We hope that the books in thisseries will encourage teachers to continue learning about sorne of the topicsthat are introduced in HLAL.We hope that both new readers and those who have read the previous editions of HLAL will find ideas and information that will challenge and inspirethem to make their own contributions to second language learning, teaching, and research.Patsy M. Lightbown, Harwich, MA, USANina Spada, Toronto, ON, Canada
INTRODUCTI ONWhen new methods and textbooks for second and foreign language teaching are introduced, they are often said to be based on the latest researchin psychology, linguistics, or pedagogy. Teachers are told that they will bemore effective than those that have gane befare. I n many cases, the newapproaches are prescribed for immediate implementation in a school orregion. Sometimes, the new materials come with opportunities for extensivetraining in their implementation. Sometimes, they are simply ordered anddistributed to teachers who have to do their best to use them effectively.Many approaches to language teaching have been proposed and implemented. One approach requires students to learn rules of grammar and listsof vocabulary to use in translating literary texts. Another emphasizes thevalue of having students imitate and practise a set of correct sentences andmemorize entire dialogues. Yet another encourages 'natural' communicationbetween students as they engage cooperatively in tasks or projects while usingthe new language. In sorne classrooms, the second language is used as themedium to teach subject matter, with the assumption that the language itselfwill be learned incidentally as students focus on the academic content.How are teachers to evaluate the potential effectiveness of different instructional practices? To be sure, the most important influence on teachers'decisions is their own experience with previous successes or disappointments,as well as their understanding of the needs and abilities of their students.We believe that ideas drawn from research and theory in second languageacquisition are also valuable in helping teachers to evaluate claims made byproponents of various language teaching methods. The goal of this book is tointroduce teachers-both novice and experienced-to sorne of the languageacquisition research that may help them not only to evaluate existing textbooks and materials but also to adapt them in ways that are more consistentwith our understanding of how languages are learned.The book begins with a chapter on language learning in early childhood.This background is important because both second language research andsecond language teaching have been influenced by our understanding of howchildren acquire their first language. Several theories about first language(LI) learning are presented in this chapter and they are revisited later in thebook in relation to second language (L2) learning.
2!ntroductionIn Chapter 2 we look at second language learners' developing knowledge,their ability to use that knowledge, and how this compares with L1 learning.InChapter 3, we turn our attention to how individual learner characteristicsmay affect success. I n Chapter 4, several theories that have been advanced toexplain second language learning are presented and discussed. Chapter 5begins with a comparison of natural and instructional environments forsecond language learning. We then examine sorne different ways in whichresearchers have observed and described teaching and learning practices insecond language classrooms.In Chapter 6, we examine six proposals that have been made for secondlanguage teaching. Examples of research related to each of the proposals arepresented, leading to a discussion of the evidence available for assessing theireffectiveness. The chapter ends with a discussion of what research findingssuggest about the most effective ways to teach and learn a second languagein the classroom.In Chapter 7, we will provide a general summary of the book by looking athow research can inform our response to sorne 'popular opinions' about language learning and teaching that are introduced below.A Glossary provides a quick reference for a number of terms that may be newor have specific technical meanings in the context of language acquisitionresearch. Glossary words are shown in bold letters where they first appear inthe text. For readers who would like to find out more, an annotated list ofsuggestions for further reading is included at the end of each chapter. TheBibliography provides full reference information for the suggested readingsand all the works that are referred to in the text.We have tried to present the information in a way that does not assume thatreaders are already familiar with research methods or theoretical issues insecond language learning. Examples and case studies are included throughout the book to illustrate the research ideas. Many of the examples are takenfrom second language classrooms. We have also included a number of activities for readers to practise sorne of the techniques of observation and analysisused in the research that we review in this book. At the end of each chapterare 'Questions for reflection' to help readers consolidare and expand theirunderstanding of the material.Before we begin . . .lt is probably true, as sorne have claimed, that most of us teach as we weretaught or in away that matches our ideas and preferences about howwe learn.Take a moment to reflect on your views about how languages are learned andwhat you think this means about how they should be taught. The statementsin the activity below summarize sorne popular opinions about language
Introductionlearning and teaching. Think about whether you agree or disagree with eachopinion. Keep these statements and your reactions to them in mind as youread about current research and theory in second language learning.AC T I V I T YGive your opinion on these statementsIndicare the extent to which you agree with each statement by marki ng an Xin the box associated with your opinion:SA-strongly agreeA-agree somewhatD-disagree somewhatSD-strongly disagreeSA1Languages are learned mainly through imitation.2 Parents usually correct young child ren when theymake grammatical errors.3 Highly intelligent people are good languagelearners.4 The most im portant predictor of success insecond language acquisition is motivation.5 The earlier a second language is introduced inschool programmes, the greater the likelihood ofsuccess in learni ng.6 Most of the mistakes that second language learnersmake are due to interference from their firstlanguage.7 The best way to learn new vocabulary is th roughreading.8 lt is essential for learners to be able topronou nce all the individual sounds in thesecond language.9 Once learners know 1,000 words and the basicstructu re of a language, they can easily participatein conversations with native speakers.10 Teachers should present grammatical rules one at atime, and learners should practise examples ofeach one befare going on to another.11Teachers should teach simple language structu resbefare complex ones.ADSD3
4Introduction12 Learners' errors should be corrected as soon asthey are made i n order to prevent the formationof bad habits.13 Teachers should use materials that exposestudents only to language structures they havealready been taught.14 When learners are allowed to interact freely (forexample, in group or pai r activities), they copyeach other's mistakes.15 Students learn what they are taught.16 Teachers should respond to students' errors bycorrectly reph rasing what they have said ratherthan by explicitly pointi ng out the error.17 Students can learn both language and academiccontent (for example, science and history)simultaneously in classes where the subjectmatter is taught in their second language.18 Classrooms are good places to learn about languagebut not for learning how to use language.Photocopiable Oxford University Press
1LAN GUAGE LEARNINGIN EARLY CHI L D H O O DPreviewIn this chapter, we will look briefly at the language development of youngchildren. We will then consider several theories that have been offered asexplanations for how language is learned. There is an immense amount ofresearch on child language. Although much of this research has been done inmiddle-class North American and European families, there is a rich body ofcross-linguistic and cross-cultural research as well. Our purpose in thischapter is to touch on a few main points in this research, primarily as a preparation for the discussion of second language acquisition (SLA), which is thefocus of this book.First language acquisitionLanguage acquisition is one of the most impressive and fascinating aspectsof human development. We listen with pleasure to the sounds made by athree-month-old baby. We laugh and 'answer' the conversational 'ba-ba-ba'babbling of older babies, and we share in the pride and joy of parents whoseone-year-old has uttered the first 'bye-bye'. Indeed, learning a language is anamazing feat -o n e that has attracted the attention oflinguists and psychologists for generations. How do children accomplish this? What enables a childnot only to learn words, but to put them together in meaningful sentences?What pushes children to go on developing complex grammatical languageeven though their early simple communication is successful for most purposes? Does child language develop similarly around the world? How dobilingual children acquire more than one language?
6Langu,age learning in early childhoodThe.first threeyears: Milestones anddevelopmentalsequencesOne remarkable thing about first language acquisition is the high degree ofsimilarity in the early language of children all over the world. Researchershave described developmental sequences far many aspects of first languageacquisition. The earliest vocalizations are simply the involuntary crying thatbabies do when they are hungry or uncomfartable. Soon, however, we hearthe cooing and gurgling sounds of contented babies, lying in their bedslooking at fascinating shapes and movement around them. Even thoughthey have little control over the sounds they make in these early weeks oflife, infants are able to hear subde differences between the sounds of humanlanguages. Not only do they distinguish the voice of their mothers fromthose of other speakers, they also seem to recognize the language that wasspoken around their mother befare they were born. Furthermore, in cleverlydesigned experiments, researchers have demonstrated that tiny babies arecapable of very fine auditory discrimination. For example, they can hear thedifference between sounds as similar as 'pa' and 'ha'.Janet Werker, Patricia Kuhl, and others have used new technologies that allowus to see how sensitive infants are to speech sounds. What may seem evenmore remarkable is that infants stop making distinctions between soundsthat are not phonemic in the language that is spoken around them. Farexample, by the time they are a year old, babies who will become speakers ofArabic stop reacting to the difference between 'pa' and 'ha' which is not phonemic in Arabic. Babies who regularly hear more than one language in theirenvironment continue to respond to these differences far a longer period(Werker, Weikum, and Yoshida 2006). One important finding is that it is notenough far babies to hear language sounds from e
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