Practical Ethics For PGIS Practitioners, Facilitators .

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THEME SECTION14Practical ethics for PGISpractitioners, facilitators,technology intermediaries andresearchersby GIACOMO RAMBALDI, ROBERT CHAMBERS, MIKE MCCALL AND JEFFERSON FOXIntroductionIn 1998, geographers in Durham convened a workshop toconsider the implications of GIS in terms of power and participation. The ensuing and widely cited paper ‘ParticipatoryGIS: opportunity or oxymoron?’ (Abbot et al., 1999) calledfor caution and exposed the risks inherent in visualising placespecific local knowledge and making it available for publicconsumption, without ensuring sufficient control of theprocess and outputs by legitimate custodians of such knowledge.Since then, spatial information technologies and datahave become increasingly accessible to the wider public. Practitioners, researchers and activists in different parts of theworld have tested and developed a range of integratedapproaches and methodologies, which led to many innovations within what is now termed as Participatory GIS (PGIS)practice.PGIS has its roots in Participatory Learning and Action(PLA) and in Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). It combinesparticipatory mapping visualisations, spatial information technologies (SIT), spatial learning, communication and advocacy.The practice takes many different forms and raises and facesall the tensions, trade-offs and dilemmas of quality withspread – standardisation versus creativity, speed versus106“Practitioners, researchers and activistsin different parts of the world havetested and developed a range ofintegrated approaches andmethodologies, which led to manyinnovations within what is now termedas Participatory GIS (PGIS) practice”quality, lenders’ and donors’ enthusiasm and drives todisburse, versus participation and the empowerment of thosewho ought to be empowered.Fox et al (2005) concluded after a two year study ofparticipatory mapping projects in Asia, that:SIT transforms the discourse about land and resources,the meaning of geographical knowledge, the work practicesof mapping and legal professionals, and ultimately the verymeaning of space itself.The paper further argues that ‘Communities that do nothave maps become disadvantaged as rights and power areincreasingly framed in spatial terms’ (Fox, 2005:7) andconcludes on a critical note that mapping has become neces-

Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners, facilitators, technology intermediaries and researchers14Participatory mappingfor good change: notesfrom Robert Chambers’presentation at theconferenceStepping stones towards good practicePhoto: Johan Minnie/Jeroen VerplankeIt appears that there is a seemingly unstoppable excitementabout geo-referencing our human physical, biological andsocio-cultural worlds and making the information accessiblein the public domain. Stunning innovations (e.g. GoogleEarth) are now available to all those with adequate access tothe Internet or modern spatial information technologies. Atthe same time the recent International Convention for theSafeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage1 which supportsthe inventorying of intangible heritage, raises sharp ethicalissues for those involved in geo-referencing peoples’ knowledge and values.In this context, the pathway leading towards PGIS goodpractice, is scattered with critical stepping stones all callingattention to troubling dilemmas and overarching issues aboutempowerment, ownership and potential exploitation, andleading to the ‘Who?’ and ‘Whose?’ questions (see Box 1).If carefully considered by technology intermediaries, the‘Who?’/’Whose?’ questions may induce appropriate attitudesand behaviours in the broader context of good practice.THEME SECTIONfacilitation, influence who takes part, what is included, thenature of outcomes, and power relationships. Much dependson the behaviour and attitudes of facilitators – and on whocontrols the process.A guide towards good practice and PGIS ethicssary – as failing to be on a map corresponds to a lack of proofof existence, and to own land and resources. Overall, thismust be framed in the need for developing ‘critical claritywith respect to mapping based on a comprehensive understanding of both intended and likely unintended consequences of our actions’ (Fox et al. 2005). As Alwin Warren(2004) put it ‘Maps [ ] are inseparable from the political andcultural contexts in which they are used’.In the 90s, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) spread withalacrity and consequently suffered from massive abuse –particularly when lenders and donors began to require largescale PRA projects. Of all the visual methods that have takenoff and been widely adopted, participatory mapping – withits many variants and applications – has been the most widespread, not only in natural resource management, but also inmany other domains (McCall 2006). With mapping as oneelement, there are now signs of a new pluralism and creativemixing of different elements in participatory methodologies.The medium and means of mapping, whether ephemeral,paper or GIS, or on-line mapping, and the style and mode ofIn a participatory context, spatial information technologies(SIT) may be used at community level by members of thecommunity itself, technology intermediaries (facilitators, practitioners and activists) and researchers. It can be used at acommunity level by community workers, activists, socialscientists, anthropologists, conservationists and the like whohave acquired SIT skills or who may team up with peoplehaving an IT professional background. Alternatively SIT canbe introduced at a community level by IT people with interest in mapping social, cultural and bio-physical territorialfeatures and who may team up with professionals from socialand environmental disciplines.Each profession and culture carries moral parameters andcodes of ethics. As PGIS is understood as a multidisciplinarypractice it is meant to respond to a blend of different moralrules. This guide to good practice is intended to provide nonexhaustive guidelines for making appropriate ethical choices1 The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible CulturalHeritage was signed in Paris on 17 October 2003 and has entered into force onApril 20, 2006 after ratification by thirty States. /132540e.pdf107

THEME SECTION14Giacomo Rambaldi, Robert Chambers, Mike McCall and Jefferson FoxBox 1: Compilation of ‘Who?’ and ‘Whose?’ Questions(different sources) Stage I: planningWho participates?Who decides on who should participate?Who participates in whose mapping? and who is left out?Who identifies the problem?Whose problems?Whose questions?Whose perspective? and whose problems, questions and perspectives are left out? Stage II: the mapping processWhose voice counts? Who controls the process?Who decides on what is important?Who decides, and who should decide, on what to visualise andmake public?Who has visual and tactile access?Who controls the use of information?And who is marginalised?Whose reality? And who understands?Whose reality is expressed?Whose knowledge, categories, perceptions?Whose truth and logic?Whose sense of space and boundary conception (if any)?Whose (visual) spatial language?Whose map legend?Who is informed what is on the map? (Transparency)Who understands the physical output? And who does not?And whose reality is left out? Stage III: resulting information control, disclosure anddisposalWho owns the output?Who owns the map(s)?Who owns the resulting data?What is left with those who generated the information and sharedtheir knowledge?Who keeps the physical output and organises its regular updating?Whose analysis and use?Who analyses the spatial information collated?Who has access to the information and why?Who will use it and for what?And who cannot access and use them? Ultimately What has changed? Who benefits from the changes? Atwhose costs?Who gains and who loses?Who is empowered and who is disempowered?108for those practicing or wanting to practice PGIS. These guidelines are not meant to be exhaustive, as each culture and situation may have its own moral imperatives. It is the obligationof the individuals to make their best judgement to ensuregood practice. In this context the following guiding principles should be taken into consideration:Be open and honestThis applies right from the beginning, and throughout theprocess. Practitioners must explain clearly and in the locallanguage(s) the strengths and limits of their ability to influence outcomes, and while the potential benefits of PGIS areexplained, no claims must be made for results that are notwithin the power of the facilitators or their organisation toachieve.Purpose: which purpose? and whose purpose?Be certain and clear about the purpose – why do people getinvolved in this particular exercise? Before embarking on theprocess, discuss openly the objectives of the PGIS exerciseand what the different parties may expect from it.Obtain informed consentAs in any research with people, participation must be voluntary. In order for participation to be voluntary, the participantneeds to know what kind of map is going to be made(showing them an example would be ideal), the type of information that will be on the map, and the possible implicationsof the maps being made public. People must agree to participate and be able to withdraw at any time without prejudice.Obtaining informed consent should be set in advance.Do your best to recognise that you are working withsocially differentiated communities and that your presencewill not be politically neutralPGIS is always a political process and will, therefore, mostlikely have unintended consequences for the communitiesyou work with regarding the complex issues of who isempowered and who might actually be disempowered. Beaware that the internal workings of socially differentiatedcommunities are very context dependant and unpredictable.Avoid raising false expectationsAny process of analysis facilitated by an outsider is liable toraise expectations of some benefit, even when the outsiderexplains that he/she has no provisions for follow-up and fewconcrete changes may follow from his/her visit. Disappointment and reinforced disillusion with visitors and organisa-

Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners, facilitators, technology intermediaries and researchers14The allimportant‘Who?’/‘Whose?’questionsInvest time and resources in building trustTrust between insiders and outsiders (technology intermediaries) is the building block upon which good PGIS practice isfounded.Avoid exposing people to dangerTHEME SECTIONvention schedule. Take advantage of the non-negotiableclause proposed on page 112.Villagers in a country in Southeast Asia working on a 3Dmodel pointed to the hideouts of rebel groups, incurringimmediate danger. Using audio-visuals, villagers in Indonesiadocumented their traditional logging practices. The regulatory environment changed putting them in a position of illegality.Be flexiblePhoto: Johan Minnie/Jeroen VerplankeDespite the necessity for a long-range vision, the approachshould remain flexible, adaptive, and recursive, without sticking rigidly to pre-determined tools and techniques, or blindlyto the initial objectives of the mapping exercise (participationis two-way learning between several sets of ‘experts’, scientific or NGO outsiders, and community insiders).Consider using spatial information technologies that canbe mastered by local people (or local technologyintermediaries) after being provided sufficient trainingThe use of GIS is not a must: it is an option. ‘As technologycomplexity increases, community access to the technologydecreases’ (Fox, 2005). Ask yourself: is a GIS really necessary?Would GIS add anything that cannot better be achievedthrough other participatory mapping methods?tions outside the community then follow. Opening up thespace to map local expectations and negotiate the objectivesmay reduce the risk of raising unrealistic expectations.Be considerate in taking people’s timeThe time of poor people is, contrary to some professionalbelief, often very precious, especially at difficult times of theyear (often during the planting or weeding seasons). Ruralpeople are often polite, hospitable and deferential tooutsiders, who do not realise the sacrifices they are making.A day of weeding lost at a critical time can have high hiddencosts in a smaller harvest.Don’t rushAccept the fact that participatory approaches need time andare generally slow, and factor the time variable in your inter-Select spatial information technologies that are adapted tolocal environmental conditions and human capacitiesChoose the appropriate spatial information technology withthe objective to grant equal access to and control over it byat least some of the participants or by community-nominatedintermediaries.Avoid outlining boundaries except if this is the specificpurpose of the exerciseBoundaries may be fluid, seasonal, fuzzy, overlapping, ormoving (see e.g. McCall, this issue). Visualising boundaries– if not specifically requested by informants to addressspecific boundary-related issues – may change the senseof space and ignite latent or previously non-existingconflicts.109

14Giacomo Rambaldi, Robert Chambers, Mike McCall and Jefferson FoxWork in progress at theconference: RobertChambers’ flipchartnotes on behaviour andattitudesTHEME SECTIONBe careful in avoid causing tensions or violence in acommunityThis occurs, for example with women who take part inparticipatory activities, and when the outsiders have left areabused or beaten by their husbands. This can apply to any‘lower’/subordinate/disadvantaged group in a community.Put local values, needs and concerns firstPhoto: Johan Minnie/Jeroen VerplankeInstances may arise where a course of action is beneficialto the needs of the associated research effort, but is significantly counter-productive in meeting the community’sneeds. This is a universal dilemma for all ‘participatory’programmes – whether the highest priority is on theoutputs, such as the needed maps, or on promotingempowerment and capacity of the community. The ethicalapproach is to find alternative courses of action that aresuitable to the community’s needs. Local people and theircommunities are the principals or partners, not the clients.So PGIS initiatives should emanate from them, not from theoutside. Therefore, participation is essential in the processof determining the purpose.110Stimulate spatial learning and information generationrather than mere data extraction for outsider’s analysisand interpretationRefrain from extracting or eliciting information only for theoutsiders’ benefit. If research is the only purpose, be openand honest, seek permission and do your best to sharebenefits. This is a major issue with local knowledge ofcommercial value.Do not sacrifice local perception of space in the name ofprecisionFocus on local and indigenous technical managementand spatial knowledge Spatial precision is relative and only has value when verydetailed data on boundaries or areas is needed. Too oftenthe emphasis is on precise measurements rather than onseeking and checking what are the spatial phenomena thepeople are really talking about, e.g. better to expend effortin understanding different types of overlapping customaryland tenure, than on measuring arbitrary boundaries downto metres or cm. and local expertise, seeking to understand local culture,society, spatial cognition, and livelihoods, local resources,hazards and options, etc.Avoid repeating activitiesMapmaking and maps are a means and not an endSome (doubtless accessible) villages in Malawi are said tohave been ‘carpet-bombed’ with PRA, and reportedly intercept visitors before they enter and negotiate with them –while more ‘remote’ villages are never visited. Maps may bedrawn, and taken away by outsiders, again and again.Spatial data and maps generated at community level areintermediate products of a long-lasting and articulatedprocess wherein spatial information management is integrated with networking and communication (e.g. advocacy).Prioritise the use of local toponomy (the meaning of geographic names) to ensure understanding, ownership, and to facilitate communicationbetween insiders and outsiders.

Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners, facilitators, technology intermediaries and researchers14Building on the'Who?'/’Whose?’questions, thediscussion onethics continuesEnsure genuine custodianshipTHEME SECTIONEnsure that the original physical output of a participatorymapping exercise stays with those who generated it andspecifically with a trusted entity nominated by the informants.Taking outputs away – even if for a short time – is an act ofdisempowerment. Making copies of community-generatedoutputs involves more time spent in the village, additionalefforts, more inputs and financial resources. Meeting thiscondition of good practice increases the cost and the time,but ensures that those who generated the spatial informationare not deprived of their intellectual property (IP) and effort.Ensure that the intellectual ownership is recognisedEnsure that multiple, full-quality copies of the maps, annotated aerial/satellite images and/or digital data sets remainwith those who expressed and shared their spatial knowledge. Provided you obtain the informed consent of theknowledge holders, you – as a technology intermediary –may store selected maps and/or data sets.Photo: Johan Minnie/Jeroen VerplankeBe ready to deal with new realities which will emergefrom the processVisualising and geo-referencing local knowledge is likely tochange the way space is perceived and understood by boththe informants and the wider public affected by themapping exercise. Such changes may influence power relations and hierarchies, and induce new conflicts or inflamelatent ones. Provisions have to be made to eventually dealwith new conflicting realities.Observe the processesThis increases understanding on both sides. Ask questions,probe, ask for explanations, e.g. why are there regularitiesand why anomalies in the results?Ensure that the outputs of the mapping process areunderstood by all those concernedThe legend is the vocabulary by which a map is interpreted.Ensure that a map legend is developed in close consultation by informants and technology intermediaries.Ensure defensive protection of traditional knowledge (TK)or measures that ensure that IP rights over traditionalknowledge are not given to parties other than thecustomary TK holdersConsider beforehand what are the likely needs for confidentiality of spatial information. Consult informants onhow to use, protect, dispose or disclose spatial data gener-ated in the mapping process. Prepare in advance for anydesired protection of data layers.If applicable, do your best to ensure positive protection ofTK, or the creation of positive rights in TK that empowerTK holders to protect and promote their TKIn some countries, sui generis legislation has been developed specifically to address the positive protection of TK.Providers and users may also enter into contractual agreements and/or use existing IP systems of protection (WIPO,2006).Do not use the practice to support the forceddisplacement of peopleDo not ask residents of an area to map out their spatial111

THEME SECTION14Giacomo Rambaldi, Robert Chambers, Mike McCall and Jefferson Foxknowledge if you know that such information may lead totheir displacement or eviction. Frequently areas found tohave conservation value are proclaimed as exclusion areasfor any human settlement and activity, de facto supportingthe eviction of people.Acknowledge the informantsIf not prejudicial to the security of the informants, and withtheir prior consent, include the names of the contributorsto the generated maps and/or data sets.Review and revise the mapsThe maps are never final or static. They are not ‘cast instone’ – they have to be crosschecked, improved, andupdated.Examine international survey gui

Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners,facilitators,technology intermediaries and researchers 14 sary Ð as failing to be on a map corresponds to a lack of proof of existence, and to own land and resources. Overall, this must be framed in the need for developing Ôcritical clarit

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