The Effect Of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy On The .
The Effect of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy on theMathematics Achievement of Black and Hispanic HighSchool StudentsA dissertation presentedby:Mary L. LanglieToThe Department of Arts and SciencesIn partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree ofDoctor of PhilosophyInLaw, Policy and SocietyNortheastern UniversityBoston, MassachusettsMay, 2008
AcknowledgementsWith gratitude to my Grandma Vada Langlie, who believed strongly in my potential as a femaleand made me a believer in education. With gratitude to my Mom and Dad, who have believedthat for me anything is possible. To my sisters Carolyn, Jessi and Lynne who have walked alongside of me and encouraged me and supported me throughout my journey. To my FaithCommunity who have supported me, encouraged me and prayed for me along the way.To Regina, a fellow Ph.Der who has shared with me her friendship, her wisdom and herencouragement along the way. To my friend Anne who has cheered me along and encouragedme on the good days and on the difficult days. To my friend Andy who has now begun his Ph.Djourney – for his friendship, encouragement and support.To my MIT Ph.D support group especially James, Karl and Greg who shared their SPSSexpertise, methodology advice and friendship with me in the dissertation stage.To Coleen who has encouraged, advised and supported me throughout all of the ten plus years ofthis process and in foundational years before – I am very much indebted. To Glenn who taughtme so much about research and methodology – I am grateful.To my Dissertation Committee – to Ballard who encouraged me as I pieced together my questionand methodology, to Bob who shares with me a commitment to social justice in K-12 education,to Margie whose methodology wisdom and advice has been indispensable and to Joan whoserved as my chair during the formative years of this journey.2
Table of ContentsAcknowledgements2Abstract5Chapter One: Statement of the ProblemUnited States Performance in MathematicsInternational Achievement TestsNational Achievement TestsMathematics and the Globalization of Technology and the EconomyMathematics and EmployabilityMathematics and College AccessPrinciples and Standards for School Mathematics7991320212326Chapter Two: Review of ResearchMathematics Achievement and TrackingMathematics Achievement and CurriculumMathematics Achievement and Access to Educational ResourcesMathematics Achievement and Student EffortMathematics Achievement and Teacher Professional CommunityMathematics Achievement and Culturally Responsive Pedagogy29293337414244Chapter Three: Innovations to Address Lower Mathematics AchievementJaime Escalante Math ProgramThe Algebra ProjectTeaching Excellence for Minority Student AchievementIn the SciencesThe Core Plus Mathematics ProjectThe Summer Enrichment Program525254555656Chapter Four: Research MethodHypothesesData SetVariablesStatistical Analysis to be Conducted5858596170Chapter Five: ResultsDescriptive StatisticsModel Results727280Chapter Six: Discussion and InterpretationFuture Research84873
Chapter Seven: Policy ReviewBrown v. Board of Education (1954)San Antonio School District v. Rodriguez (1973)Serrano v. Priest (1971)Rose v. Council for Better Education (1989)9090919292Legislative and Judicial Efforts on Education Equity in the Commonwealth ofMassachusetts94McDuffy v. Secretary of the Executive Office of Education (1993)94The Education Reform Act of 199394Hancock v. the Commissioner of Education (2005)96Chapter Eight: Summary100Bibliography108AppendixDistribution of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Scores byRace/Ethnicity of StudentsMathematics Score Distribution Black, Not HispanicMathematics Score Distribution, HispanicMathematics Score Distribution, White, Not HispanicNELS:88 Teacher Questionnaire Questions Used forCulturally Relevant Pedagogy Independent Variables1201201211221231244
The Effect of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy on the Mathematics Achievement ofBlack and Hispanic High School StudentsByMary L. LanglieABSTRACT OF DISSERTATIONSubmitted in partial fulfillment of the requirementsfor the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Law, Policy and Societyin the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences ofNortheastern University, May, 20085
AbstractThe Effect of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy on the Mathematics Achievement ofBlack and Hispanic High School StudentsUsing data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88),this study examines the effect of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy on the mathematicsachievement of black and Hispanic tenth grade students. Data from the TeacherQuestionnaire were used to develop an index of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy for eachmathematics teacher and, through standard multiple regression analysis, determine therelationship between the teacher’s use of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and themathematics achievement of their black and Hispanic tenth grade students. Results fromthis study suggest that black and Hispanic students whose mathematics teachersemphasize an awareness of the importance of mathematics in everyday life, encouragetheir students to become interested in mathematics and encourage students to understandthe applications of mathematics in the basic and applied sciences, will achieve more inmathematics.6
Chapter One: Statement of the ProblemMathematics is often considered the gateway curriculum that opens doors tocollege admission and, ultimately, to employability in an economic market that hasbecome increasingly technological and global over the past fifty years. Given the role ofmathematics in today’s global economic and employment market, its status andfunctioning in K-12 education merits careful attention. It is critical that studentsattending public schools in the United States receive a mathematics education thatprepares them for admission to college and ensures that they are employable in today’seconomic market. What we know, from various sources that will be reviewed in thischapter, is that students of lower socioeconomic status (those students qualifying for freeor reduced-price school lunches) demonstrate lower achievement in mathematics thanstudents of higher economic status. Students who are white do better in mathematicsthan students who are black or Hispanic. The consequences of this lower mathematicsachievement in today’s economic market are vast and, uncorrected, will perpetuate thecycle of poverty.This chapter reviews what we know about the mathematics achievement ofstudents from the United States when compared to students from other countries in thisglobal economy. Performance by United States eighth-grade students in the Trends inInternational Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2003 will be reviewed, with anindication of how United States students compare with their peers in the forty-fourcountries participating in the TIMSS. This chapter will also review the performance ofeighth-grade students as reflected in The National Assessment of Educational Progress7
(NAEP) 2005 report of the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), identifyingdifferences in mathematics achievement between students in different racial andsocioeconomic groups.As referenced earlier, the impact of mathematics achievement on the lives ofstudents in today’s global and technological economy is significant. This chapter willinclude a review of the economy as it is evolving today relative to the increasingimportance of mathematics skills for a range of professions including medicine, finance,and technology among others.Related to a review of the role of mathematics skills on today’s economy and theassociated job market is a review of the role of mathematics preparation in junior highand high school. How will students’ enrollment in mathematics from junior high throughhigh school impact their ability to enroll in a four-year college and persist throughgraduation? Given the value of a bachelor’s degree in the evolving job market, these areimportant considerations.In an effort to address the lower performance of United States students in theTIMSS and the lower performance of lower socioeconomic status, black and Hispanicstudents in the NAEP, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) hasdeveloped standards intended to bring mathematics education and mathematicsachievement for all students to a level that ensures that they are able to participate intoday’s technological and global economy. The standards place a stronger emphasis ontechnology and mathematics-based skills and on learning mathematics withunderstanding.8
The central focus of this chapter will be to review research that has attempted toidentify the reasons for the disparities in mathematics achievement between students oflower and higher socioeconomic levels and between black and Hispanic and whitestudents. Much of this research examines the impact of the NCTM principles andstandards to determine their effectiveness in more evenly distributing mathematicsachievement among groups, particularly minority students and students of lowersocioeconomic status. This review includes a summary of the research investigating thefollowing possible causes for the difference in mathematics achievement between lowand high socioeconomic students and students within different racial/ethnic groups:tracking, curriculum, access to educational resources, student effort, teacher professionalcommunity and culturally sensitive pedagogy.United States Performance in Mathematics Achievement TestsUnited States Student Performance in Mathematics: TIMSSThe Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2003,facilitated by the International Association for the Evaluation of EducationalAchievement (IEA) is the third in this series of tests since 1995 (Gonzales, Guzmán,Partelow, Pahlke, Jocelyn, Kastberg & Williams, 2004). The TIMSS reflects theparticipation of more than forty countries in mathematics and science achievementtesting. Although United States scores have improved with each implementation of theTIMSS, the United States continues to score below the average of a number ofindustrialized countries with which the United States must compete economically, in aneconomy dependent on technology and the associated mathematics skills of itsemployment base. TIMSS 2003 scores reflect mathematics achievement differently9
distributed within the United States with those who are white and of highersocioeconomic levels scoring better than those who are black and Hispanic and of lowersocioeconomic levels.Chart 1 provides TIMSS 2003 scores for countries scoring higher or notmeasurably different than the United States.CountryAverage Score 1995 Average Score 2003 ChangeSingapore609605-3Korea, Republic of5815898Hong Kong SAR56958617Chinese Taipei-585Japan581570-11Belgium – ry5275292Malaysia-508Russian Federation524508-16Slovak Republic534508-26United land4934985Israel-496New Zealand501494-7Chart 1. TIMSS 2003 – Countries with scores higher than or not measurably differentfrom United States Average.1 (Scores in shaded area are measurably higher than those of theUnited States)The TIMSS mathematics exam scores on a range from 1 – 800. The averagescore of eighth graders from the forty-four countries taking the TIMMS 2003 was 466,with eighth graders from the United States averaging 504. This reflects an improvementsince 1995, when eighth graders from the United States scored 492 on the mathematicsportion of the TIMSS.1Gonzales, Carlos, Partelow, Pahlke, Jocelyn, Kastberg, & Williams. (2004). Highlights from the Trendsin International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2003 (NCES 2005-005). United StatesDepartment of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U. S. GovernmentPrinting Office.10
TIMSS Score by re4003002001000WhiteBlack or African American19951999Hispanic or Latino2003Chart 2. TIMSS 2003 – United States Scores by Race/EthnicityBlack and Hispanic eighth graders from the United States also improved in theirTIMSS mathematic score from 1995 to 2003. Eighth-grade black students’ scoresimproved from 419 in 1995 to 448 in 2003 while eighth grade Hispanic students’ scoresimproved from 443 in 1995 to 465 in 2003. Although this reflects an improvement, thescores of black and Hispanic students are below the United States average by 56 and 41points respectively. Black students scored 77 points below and Hispanic students scored60 points below whites. The differences in scores between blacks and whites andbetween Hispanics and whites are each statistically significant at the 95 percentconfidence level.11
TIMSS Score by Percentage Eligible for Free 002001000Less than 10 percent10 to 24.9 percent25 to 49.9 percent199950 to 74.9 percent75 percent or more2003Chart 3. United States TIMSS Score by Percentage Eligible for Free LunchIn 2003, mathematics scores also differed in the United States by socioeconomiclevel. Students attending public schools with 75 percent or more students eligible for freeor reduced-price lunch2 scored 444, while students attending public schools with 10percent or less of their students eligible for free or reduced-price lunches scored 547, a103 point difference. These differences in achievement are significant at the 95 percentconfidence level.The TIMSS 2003 reflects that the United States is not performing as strongly asnecessary when compared with countries in the global economy with which the UnitedStates must compete in professions requiring math proficiency. United Statesperformance in the TIMSS differs across race/ethnicity and across economic lines ratherthan reflecting an even distribution of mathematics achievement across the country’s2Eligibility for free or reduced-price lunch is determined by students’ family income in relation to federallyestablished poverty level.12
population groups. In cases of differences in achievement between blacks and whites andbetween Hispanics and whites, the differences in achievement in favor of whites arestatistically significant. The same is true of the differences in achievement betweenstudents of lower socioeconomic status (qualifying for free or reduced-price schoollunches) and students of higher socioeconomic status. Higher socioeconomic studentsdemonstrate a higher level of achievement in mathematics than lower socioeconomicstudents with the differences at a statistically significant level.The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) - 2005The NAEP is a nationally representative survey of student achievement in coresubject areas, including mathematics. The NAEP is authorized by Congress andadministered by the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES), within theInstitute of Educational Services of the United States Department of Education (Perie,Grigg, and Dion, 2005). The NAEP is often referred to as the “Nation’s Report Card .”The NAEP mathematics achievement test scores on a scale from 0 – 500, withlevels for Eighth-Grade Achievement defined as Basic (262), Proficient (299) andAdvanced (333). The United States national average score in the NAEP 2005 is 279, 20points below the Proficient level.13
NAEP - 8th Grade Math by Race/Ethnicity350300240 244250Scale of 500295288 291288 289281 284252 255251 253259 263 264259 Pacific IslanderAmerican Indian/AlaskaNative2005Chart 4. NAEP – 8th Grade Average Mathematics Scores by Race/EthnicityAlthough white, black, and Hispanic students’ scores reflected a statisticallysignificant increase from 2003 to 2005, blacks and Hispanics continue to reflect lowerachievement than their white counterparts at a statistically significant level. This isconsistent with the pattern of mathematics achievement distribution reflected in theTIMSS 2003 assessment. The gap between black and white scores was reduced from 41points in 1996 to 34 points in 2005, not a statistically significant change. The gapbetween Hispanic and white scores was reduced from 30 points in 1996 to 27 points in2005, also not a statistically significant change (Perie, Grigg, and Dion, 2005).14
NAEP - 8th Grade Math Achievement by Free or Reduced-Price Lunch Eligibility300290287289288285283279Scale of 500280277276270262259260253250250240230EligibleNot Eligible199620002003Information Not Available2005Chart 5. NAEP – Average 8th Grade Mathematics Scores – By Eligibility forFree/Reduced-Price School LunchAs with the TIMSS 2003 study, NAEP 2005 also determines that students eligiblefor free or reduced-price lunch scored lower in mathematics than students who were noteligible. In 2005, those students not eligible for free/reduced-price lunch scored onaverage 26 points higher than those students who were eligible. This difference inmathematics achievement is also statistically significant.15
NAEP 8th Grade Average Math Scores by Parents' Highest Level of Education300288290289286280Scale of 0240230Less than high schoolGraduated high school1996Some education after high school20002003Graduated college2005Chart 6. NAEP – Average 8th Grade Mathematics Scores – By Parents’ HighestLevel of EducationNAEP data also indicate a positive relationship between the level of parents’education and students’ mathematics achievement scores. In 2005, the average score forstudents whose parents did not complete high school was 259, for those who hadgraduated from high school was 267, for those with some education after high school was280 and for those who graduated from college the mathematics score was 288. Thedifference in the score for mathematics achievement for each level is statisticallysignificant from the next for all levels of parent education. The relevance of categorizingstudents by their parents’ level of education is important in that research shows thatstudents whose parents completed a college education are more likely to attend schoolsthat offer advanced mathematics, beginning with attending schools that offer algebra ineighth grade (Horn and Nun ez, 2000; Raudenbush, Fotiu, Cheong, 1998).16
In order to gain further information on the data indicating differences inachievement by type of location, in 2002, NAEP began collecting achievement data fortheir Trial Urban District Assessment (TUDA) category. Eleven school districts from thefollowing urban areas participated in TUDA 2005: Atlanta, Austin, Boston, Charlotte,Chicago, Cleveland, District of Columbia, Houston, Los Angeles, New York City andSan Diego. School districts participating in the TUDA are part of the “Large CentralCity” location category, with a population at or above 250,000 and are not synonymouswith inner city (Rampey, Lutkus, and Dion, 2005).NAEP TUDA 2005 - 8th Grade Math Achievement290281279280281270Scale of ntralNaCtionity220NationBostonClevelandLarge Central CityHoustonDistrict of ColumbiaAustinNew York CityAtlantaCharlotteChicagoSan DiegoLos AngelesChart 7. TUDA – NAEP 2005 - 8th Mathematics Average ScoresChart 7 illustrates the mathematics achievement scores in the TUDA schools, inLarge Central City Schools and in the nation. All school districts except Austin andCharlotte evidence a score below the national average that is statistically significant.17
Austin, Charlotte, San Diego and Boston’s scores are higher than those of Large CentralCity schools at a statistically significant level. Chicago, Los Angeles, Cleveland,Washington D. C. and Atlanta all scored below the Large Central City average at astatistically significant level. TUDA data is worth reviewing as black and/or Hispanicstudents comprise the majority of students in eighth grade in TUDA schools. Except forAustin, Charlotte and San Diego, TUDA schools have a higher percentage of studentseligible for free or reduced-price school lunch than schools in Large Central Cities(Rampey, et al, 2005).According to NAEP 2005 data, the average United States score in mathematicsachievement (279) is below Proficient (299). NAEP 2005 data indicate that mathematicsachievement of white students is significantly higher than that of black or Hispanicstudents. Mathematics achievement data also indicate that students who do not qualifyfor free or reduced-price lunch score significantly higher than students who do qualify.Students’ mathematics achievement scores increase as their parents’ level of educationincreases, also at a statistically significant level. The Trial Urban District Assessment(TUDA) data involve schools in urban areas that serve more than the average number ofblack, Hispanic and lower socioeconomic students. All but two school districts (Austinand Charlotte) score below the national average in mathematics achievement. One canconsider TUDA data, reflecting urban schools that are primarily composed of black,Hispanic and low socioeconomic students, a litmus test on success in the United States inincreasing mathematics achievement among low socioeconomic status and black andHispanic students.18
The NAEP 2005 results are consistent with the TIMSS 2003 results. Mathematicsachievement among blacks and Hispanics and lower socioeconomic status students islower than mathematics achievement among white students and those of highersocioeconomic status at a statistically significant level.The achievement of students from the United States, as measured by TheInternational Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2003, is below that of manyindustrialized nations with which the United States competes in the global andtechnological market. Scores of United States students reflect low mathematicsachievement reflected disproportionately among students who are eligible for free orreduced-price lunches, among black and Hispanic students and among students whoseparents have less education. Mathematics achievement of United States studentsreflected in the NAEP 2005 confirms the same patterns in low mathematics achievementreflected in TIMSS 2003. Additionally, NAEP indicates a positive relationship betweenmathematics achievement and the level of parent education. Finally, students whoattending schools in the eleven urban school districts participating in the Trial UrbanDistrict Assessment of the NAEP (districts populated primarily by students qualifying forfree or reduced-price school lunch, black and Hispanic students and students whoseparents have less education than most United States parents) also reflect lowermathematics achievement than most United States students at a statistically significantlevel.19
Mathematics and the Globalization of Technology and the EconomyThe United States Department of Labor projects that the greatest industry growthfrom 2004 – 2014 will be in Education (32.5 percent), Health Services (30.3 percent) andProfessional and Business Services (27.8 percent). 3 Each of these industries reflects agrowing dependence on technology and mathematics in its activities. Between 1983 and1993, employment growth took place in jobs such as computer engineers, scientists andsystems analysts (Rosenthal, 1995; Brauer, Hickock, 1995). In manufacturing, thetransition to labor-saving technology including computer-operated processes and roboticshas increased the demand for mathematics skills to manage the technology of the newmanufacturing processes (Berman, Bound, and Griliches, 1994; Rosenthal, 1995; Borjas,1995; Brauer, Hickock, 1995).The United States exports goods that require skilled labor, often in technologyrelated fields, increasing the demand for skilled labor (Berman, et. al, 1994; Rosenthal,1995; Borjas, 1995; Brauer, Hickock, 1995). Innovations in electronics, physics andpharmaceuticals - all math and/or technology related industries - have increased involume in international trade (Montobbio, Rampa, 2005). Countries demonstrating ahigh degree of innovativeness and technology in their trade include China, Malaysia,Singapore and Thailand, with China and Singapore making great strides in technologicalcompetitiveness in the export market (Montobbio, Rampa, 2005).The evidence for the effect of the globalization of the economy is welldocumented. The studies cited comprehensively reviewed data on trade, labor and patentapproval to come to their conclusions. The United States exports goods requiring skilledlabor. As a result, the United States requires more laborers who are skilled in technology3http://www.bls.gov/iag/iaghome.htm20
and able to run the technology on which many manufacturing processes are increasinglydependent. Of the countries emerging as strong exporters of technology-based products,Singapore, Korea and China are outperforming the United States in the TIMSS,evidencing the development of a global mathematics-skilled workforce with which theUnited States must be competitive.That the United States is losing its competitive edge due to low mathematicsachievement is one concern that resulted in the recent introduction of H. R. 4734, the 21stCentury National Defense Education Act. The purpose of the Act:“To establish a comprehensive educational program to bolster theeconomic competitiveness and national security of the United States bypromoting science, technology, engineering and mathematics education,careers, and capacity ”4H. R. 4734 acknowledges that the United States is losing its innovative edge and that theconsequences to the United States economy will be significant if this is not corrected.Mathematics and EmployabilityAs cited in the preceding section, recent growth in the labor market isconcentrated in industries and occupations requiring skills in technology andmathematics. Many of these professions require at least 50 percent of their workforce tohold bachelor’s degrees and include employment in computer-related, medical, financialsecurities and science-related professions (Dohm, Wyatt, 2002; Moncarz, Reaser, 2002;Cuozzo, 2002). Significant areas of job growth also include specialty occupations, withcomputer engineers, scientists and systems analysts reflecting strong growth (Rosenthal,1995; Moncarz, Reaser, 2002).421st Century National Defense Education Act, H. R. 4734, 109th Cong. § 2 (2006).21
A direct relationship has formed between skills in mathematics and employmentin today’s economy as reflected in relationship between skills in mathematics and wageearning power. Using the National Longitudinal Study of the Class of 1972 (NLS72),Altonji (1995) determined that one year of high school mathematics raises wages by 1.9percent, which is a significant impact when put in the context of the resulting 7 percentincrease resulting from one full year of postsecondary education. Murnane, Willet andLevy (1995) also used NLS72 data and High School and Beyond (HSB) data to study therelationship between basic cognitive skills and wages. Murnane et al. (1995) found thatmathematics skills had a greater impact on wages for 1980 high school graduates than for1972 graduates.The research in this area is strong and consistent, with research from manysources reflecting a thorough and careful review of data and coming independently to thesame conclusions. Industries are transferring from unskilled to skilled labor as they usetechnology for many systems once managed by individuals. Mathematics and technologyare being applied to a wider range of functions within the areas of science, medicine,finance and other fields and occupations. A growing number of occupations requireskills in mathematics and/or a bachelor’s degree. Those with proven skills in mathematicswill find greater employment opportunities and will find that wages reflect the valueplaced on skills in mathematics.For those students who exhibit lower achievement in mathematics, theconsequences in terms of employability and the ability to earn reasonable wages arenegative and significant. As the economy becomes more dependent on technology toreplace labor and to accomplish work more efficiently, mathematics and technology skills22
in the labor force are becoming more necessary. Industries that depend on technology,such as engineering and the health professions, are on the rise.Mathematics and College AccessAs cited in the preceding section, a number of the evolving professions in theUnited States economy require greater mathematics skills and/or a college education.Access to college is a critical component of one’s ability to prepare to participatemeaningfully in the economy of today and of the future. Further, economic access is anurgent issue for poor people and people of color and this access is dependent onmathematics and science literacy (Moses and Cobb, 2001). Moses considers education acivil rights issue and has devoted his efforts in the Algebra Project, Inc. to workingtoward strong mathematics education for poor and minority students. Research on thevalue of mathematics education on access to and success in completing a bachelor’sdegree suggests that mathematics, often considered the “gatekeeper” curriculum in juniorhigh and high school, influences access to a four-year college and one’s ability to persistto graduation with a bachelor’s degree.Enrollment in eighth-grade mathematics is strongly associated with takingadvanced mathematics in high school which, in turn, is strongly associated withenrollment in college (Choy, Horn, Nuňez, and Chen, 2000). Over 60 percent of studentswho enrolled in advanced mathematics in high school enrolled in a four-year collegewithin two years of graduation (Choy, et al., 2000; Horn, 1997). In their review of theNational Longitudinal Study of 1972 (NLS72) and High School and Beyond (HSB) data,Murnane, Willet and Levy (1995) found similar results and determined that the average23
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The Effect of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy on the Mathematics Achievement of Black and Hispanic High School Students Using data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), this study examines the effect of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy on the mathematics achieve
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