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A fundamental aspect of NATO strategy since the early 1990s has beenthe opening up of the Alliance to new members (Part VI) and the broadening ofcontacts and cooperation with non-member countries through a range of bilateral and multilateral relationships and partnerships. An overview of the development and role of these partnerships and practical forms of cooperation isgiven in Part VII, which discusses the evolution of the Euro-Atlantic Partnershipbased on the complementary pillars of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Counciland the Partnership for Peace programme, as well as the relationships andvarying forms of cooperation developed by NATO with Russia, Ukraine, thecountries of the Mediterranean Dialogue, southeastern Europe and, morerecently, countries from the Middle East, through the Istanbul CooperationInitiative.Institutional cooperation has also played a large part in the evolution ofregional security, in particular the strategic partnership between NATO and theEuropean Union that is the subject of Part VIII, as well as the wider institutional framework for security and cooperation between NATO and the UnitedNations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and otherinternational organisations. These relationships are described in Part IX.Part X addresses the programmes and activities that are the mainstayof the Alliance’s effectiveness in the many different fields of planning and cooperation which together constitute the security agenda of today. Informationis provided on the logistics, standardisation, communications, armaments,airspace and air traffic management and air defence activities which make itpossible for the forces of NATO member countries and Partner countries tooperate together. Information is also given on activities in the field of civil emergency planning and disaster relief, on public diplomacy and communicationsand information programmes, and on scientific cooperation and cooperation inthe environmental and societal spheres which have been refocused in order toaddress new security challenges directly.Further information relating to abbreviations in common use are listed inAppendix 1.11

PART IANINTRODUCTION TO THEALLIANCE

WHATISNATO?The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation is an alliance of 26 countries fromNorth America and Europe committed to fulfilling the goals of the North AtlanticTreaty signed in Washington on 4 April 1949.In accordance with the Treaty, the fundamental role of NATO is to safeguard the freedom and security of its member countries by political and militarymeans. NATO safeguards the Allies’ common values of democracy, individualliberty, the rule of law and the peaceful resolution of disputes and promotesthese values throughout the Euro-Atlantic area. It provides a forum in whichcountries from North America and Europe can consult together on securityissues of common concern and take joint action in addressing them.Relations between North American and European members of the Allianceare the bedrock of NATO. These countries share the same essential valuesand interests and are committed to the maintenance of democratic principles,making the security of Europe and that of North America indivisible.The Alliance is committed to defending its member states against aggression or the threat of aggression and to the principle that an attack against oneor several members would be considered as an attack against all.NATO remains an inter-governmental organisation in which each membercountry retains its sovereignty. All NATO decisions are taken jointly by themember countries on the basis of consensus. NATO’s most important decisionmaking body is the North Atlantic Council, which brings together representatives of all the Allies at the level of ambassadors, ministers or heads of stateand government. Each member country participates fully in the decisionmaking process on the basis of equality, irrespective of its size or political,military and economic strength.The Allies therefore retain scope for independent action with respect tojoint decisions and joint actions. However, Allied decisions, once taken, enableunified and concerted action to be reinforced by political solidarity. This wasmanifest, for example, in the decisions taken to provide assistance to the UnitedStates after the attacks of 11 September 2001. For the first time in its history,NATO invoked Article 5 of the Washington Treaty, which stipulates that an armedattack against one or more members of the Alliance is considered as anarmed attack against all. All the members of the Alliance vehemently condemned the attacks and provided support to the United States in its response.NATO has no operational forces of its own other than those assigned toit by member countries or contributed by Partner countries for the purpose ofcarrying out a specific mission. It has a number of mechanisms available to15

it for this purpose – the defence planning and resource planning processesthat form the basis of cooperation within the Alliance, the implementation ofpolitical commitments to improved capabilities, and a military structure thatcombines the functions of a multinational force planning organisation with anAlliance-wide system of command and control of the military forces assignedto it. In other words, under the command of NATO’s strategic commanders,the Organisation provides for the joint planning, exercising and operationaldeployment of forces provided by the member countries in accordance with acommonly agreed force planning process. In sum, an important part of NATO’srole is to act as a catalyst for generating the forces needed to meet requirements and enabling member countries to participate in crisis managementoperations which they could not otherwise undertake on their own.Dialogue and cooperation with non-NATO countries have helped to overcome the divisions of the Cold War era and to extend security and stabilitywell beyond NATO’s borders. The Alliance is deepening and broadening itscooperation with Russia and Ukraine and with other Partner countries – someof which have since become members – as well as with countries in theMediterranean Dialogue programme and in the broader Middle East. It is alsoreinforcing cooperation with other international organisations and, in particular,with the European Union, with which it is developing a strategic partnership.NATO’s structures and mechanisms provide the framework for these varyingforms of cooperation, which are an integral part of the day-to-day activity ofthe Alliance.The origins of the AllianceFrom 1945 to 1949, faced with the pressing need for economic reconstruction, Western European countries and their North American allies viewedwith concern the expansionist policies and methods of the USSR. Having fulfilled their own post-war undertakings to reduce their defence establishmentsand demobilise their forces, Western governments grew increasingly alarmedas it became clear that the Soviet leadership intended to maintain its ownmilitary forces at full strength. Moreover, in view of the declared ideologicalaims of the Soviet Communist Party, it was evident that appeals for respectfor the United Nations Charter, and for respect for the international settlementsreached at the end of the Second World War, would not guarantee the nationalsovereignty or independence of democratic states faced with the threat ofoutside aggression or internal subversion. The imposition of undemocraticforms of government and the repression of effective opposition and basichuman and civil rights and freedoms in many Central and Eastern Europeancountries, as well as elsewhere in the world, compounded these fears.16

Between 1947 and 1949 a series of dramatic political events broughtmatters to a head. These included direct threats to the sovereignty of Norway,Greece, Turkey and other Western European countries, the June 1948 coupin Czechoslovakia, and the illegal blockade of Berlin which began in April ofthe same year. The signature of the Brussels Treaty in March 1948 markedthe determination of five Western European countries – Belgium, France,Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom – to develop a commondefence system and to strengthen the ties between them in a manner whichwould enable them to resist ideological, political and military threats to theirsecurity.The Brussels Treaty represented the first step in the post-war reconstruction of western european security and brought the Western Union DefenceOrganisation into being. It was also the first step in the process leading to thesignature of the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949 and the creation of the NorthAtlantic Alliance.Negotiations with the United States and Canada then followed on the creation of a single North Atlantic Alliance based on security guarantees and mutualcommitments between Europe and North America. Denmark, Iceland, Italy,Norway and Portugal were invited by the Brussels Treaty powers to becomeparticipants in this process. These negotiations culminated in the signatureof the Washington Treaty in April 1949, which introduced a common securitysystem based on a partnership among these 12 countries. In 1952, Greeceand Turkey acceded to the treaty. The Federal Republic of Germany joined theAlliance in 1955 and, in 1982, Spain also became a member of NATO. In 1990,with the unification of Germany, the former German Democratic Republic cameunder the security protection of the Alliance as an integral part of the unitedcountry. The Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland joined NATO in 1999. In2003 seven more countries (Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania,Slovakia and Slovenia) were invited to begin accession talks and formallyacceded to the treaty in March 2004.The North Atlantic Alliance was founded on the basis of a treaty betweenmember states entered into freely by each of them after public debate anddue parliamentary process. The Treaty upholds their individual rights as wellas their international obligations in accordance with the Charter of the UnitedNations. Through the treaty, member countries commit themselves to sharingthe risks and responsibilities of collective security and undertake not to enterinto any other international commitments which might conflict with the treaty.Since NATO’s creation more than half a century ago, its central focushas been to provide for the immediate defence and security of its membercountries. Today this remains its core task, but its main focus has undergone17

fundamental changes to enable the Alliance to confront new threats and meetnew challenges.NATO’s fundamental security tasksNATO’s essential and enduring purpose, set out in the Washington Treaty,is to safeguard the freedom and security of all its members by political andmilitary means. Based on common values of democracy, human rights andthe rule of law, the Alliance has striven since its inception to secure a lastingpeaceful order in Europe. However, the achievement of this aim can be jeopardised by crisis and conflict outside the Euro-Atlantic area. The Alliance therefore not only ensures the defence of its members but contributes to peace andstability beyond the geographical space defined as the North Atlantic Treatyarea through partnerships and crisis management operations.The guiding principle by which the Alliance works is common commitmentand mutual cooperation among sovereign states in support of the indivisibilityof security for all its members. Solidarity and cohesion within the Alliance,through daily cooperation in both the political and military spheres, guaranteethat no single member country is forced to rely upon its own national effortsalone in dealing with basic security challenges. Without depriving membercountries of their right and duty to assume their sovereign responsibilities in thefield of defence, the Alliance enables them through collective efforts to meettheir essential national security objectives.NATO’s fundamental security tasks are described in the Alliance’sStrategic Concept. It is the authoritative statement of the Alliance’s objectivesand provides the highest level of guidance on the political and military meansto be used in achieving them. It remains the basis for the implementation ofAlliance policy as a whole. However, changing threats and threat perceptionshave resulted in a continuous process of adaptation of this strategy to ensurethat the political framework, military structures and military capabilities neededto deal with modern security challenges are all in place.The Strategic Concept, first published in 1991, differed dramatically frompreceding documents both in content and form. It maintained the security of itsmembers as NATO’s fundamental purpose but combined this with the specificobligation to work towards improved and expanded security for Europe as awhole through partnership and cooperation with former adversaries. In addition, it was issued as a public document, open for discussion and commentby parliaments, security specialists, journalists and the broader public. TheStrategic Concept was revised in 1999, committing the Allies not only to common defence but to the peace and stability of the wider Euro-Atlantic area. Itcomprises the following political elements:18

a broad approach to security, encompassing political, economic,social and environmental factors, as well as the Alliance’s defencedimension a strong commitment to transatlantic relations maintenance of Alliance military capabilities to ensure the effectiveness of military operations development of European capabilities within the Alliance maintenance of adequate conflict prevention and crisis managementstructures and procedures effective partnerships with non-NATO countries based on cooperationand dialogue the enlargement of the Alliance and an open door policy towardspotential new members continuing efforts towards far-reaching arms control, disarmament andnon-proliferation agreementsThis broad definition of security recognises the importance of political,economic, social and environmental factors in addition to the defence dimension. Partnership and cooperation with other countries, cooperation with otherregional and international organisations such as the United Nations, and thestrategic partnership that is evolving between NATO and the European Unionall contribute to the establishment of mutually reinforcing and complementaryrelations and to more effective conflict prevention and crisis management.The specific tasks of the Alliance are also described in the StrategicConcept. They are as follows:To provide one of the indispensable foundations for a stable EuroAtlantic security environment, based on the growth of democraticinstitutions and commitment to the peaceful resolution of disputes,in which no country would be able to intimidate or coerce any otherthrough the threat or use of force.To serve, as provided for in Article 4 of the Washington Treaty, as anessential transatlantic forum for Allied consultations on any issuesthat affect their vital interests, including possible developments posing risks for members’ security, and for appropriate coordination oftheir efforts in fields of common concern.To deter and defend against any threat of aggression againstany NATO member state as provided for in Articles 5 and 6 of theWashington Treaty.19

And in order to enhance the security and stability of the Euro-Atlanticarea:To stand ready, case-by-case and by consensus, in conformity withArticle 7 of the Washington Treaty, to contribute to effective conflictprevention and to engage actively in crisis management, includingcrisis response operations.To promote wide-ranging partnership, cooperation, and dialoguewith other countries in the Euro-Atlantic area, with the aim of increasing transparency, mutual confidence and the capacity for joint actionwith the Alliance.In the wake of the September 11 attacks on the United States, the priority has been given to aspects such as better sharing of intelligence relating tothe threat from terrorism, strengthening cooperation and partnership with othercountries outside the Alliance and with other organisations across the boardbut above all in addressing the threat from terrorism, reinforcing the role ofNATO’s Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Centre in contributing to militarypreparedness to counter WMD threats and to the ability to operate in a WMDenvironment, adapting forces structures, and improving military capabilities inother relevant areas.Facing the changing security environmentThe historic decision taken by NATO to invoke Article 5 of the WashingtonTreaty and extend its assistance to the United States following 11 September2001 marked the beginning of a new impetus in NATO’s transformation process that was to touch on virtually every aspect of Alliance activity.In addition to combating terrorism, a variety of other factors have reinforced the need for adaptation of Alliance structures and policies. Theseinclude the increased threat posed by weapons of mass destruction andthe need for new operational capabilities in critical areas. The demands ofNATO’s enlargement have also had an impact, as have the developing roleof partnerships with Russia, Ukraine and partner countries, the importance ofthe Mediterranean Dialogue and the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative, and thestrategic partnership with the European Union. NATO’s leading role in theInternational Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan and its continuing rolein the Balkans have also led the Organisation to adapt itself to the requirements of these operations, of its missions in Iraq and Sudan, and of its reliefefforts in Pakistan.Many of the changes needed to carry forward the transformation processwere introduced at NATO’s Prague Summit on 21–22 November 2002 and20

were pursued at its Istanbul Summit on 28–29 June 2004. Five major areashave been affected: membership of the Alliance, the reform of NATO’s civilianand military structures, the acceptance of new roles, the development of newcapabilities and the promotion of new relationships.The accession of new membersThe accession of the first three Eastern European countries in 1999coincided with the Alliance’s 50th anniversary, which was marked at theWashington Summit in April of that year. This was followed in 2004 by NATO’slargest wave of enlargement since its creation, when seven new membercountries were admitted. It was at the Istanbul Summit that the leaders of the26 member countries gathered for the first time since the Alliance’s fifth roundof enlargement. Allied leaders reaffirmed that NATO’s door would remain opento European democracies willing and able to assume the responsibilities andobligations of membership, in accordance with Article 10 of the WashingtonTreaty.Reforming NATO's civilian and military structuresThe enlargement process had repercussions on the physical workingspace needed at the political headquarters in Brussels, and the construction of new, larger premises was agreed in 1999. In addition, a number ofinternal reforms were adopted in 2002 to adapt the International Staff and theInternational Military Staff to the new missions and priorities of the Alliance.In parallel, NATO’s military com

6 PART IV THE ALLIANCE’S ROLE IN PEACEKEEPING AND PEACE-SUPPORT OPERATIONS CHAPTER 13: NATO’s role in Bosnia-Herzegovina 143 CHAPTER 14: The Kosovo conflict and the role of KFOR 149 CHAPTER 15: NATO’s role in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia* 153 CHAPTER 16: NATO’s role in Afghanistan 155 CHAPTER 17: NATO’s role