Conflict Management And Resolution: An Introduction

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Conflict Management and ResolutionConflict Management and Resolution provides students with an overview of the main theories of conflict management and conflict resolution, and will equip them to respond tothe complex phenomena of international conflict.The book covers these four key concepts in detail: negotiationmediationfacilitationreconciliation.It examines how to prevent, manage and eventually resolve various types of conflict thatoriginate from inter- state and inter- group competition, and expands the existing scope ofconflict management and resolution theories by examining emerging theories on the identity, power and structural dimensions of adversarial relationships. The volume is designedto enhance our understanding of effective response strategies to conflict in multiple socialsettings as well as violent struggles, and utilizes numerous cases studies, both past andcurrent. These include the Iranian and North Korean nuclear weapons programs, the war inLebanon, the Arab–Israeli conflict, civil wars in Africa, and ethnic conflicts in Europe andAsia.This book will be essential reading for all students of conflict management and resolution, mediation, peacekeeping, peace and conflict studies, and international relations ingeneral.Ho- Won Jeong is Professor, the Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, GeorgeMason University, USA. He has published nine books in the field of international relations,peace and conflict studies. He is also a senior editor of the International Journal of PeaceStudies.

Conflict Management andResolutionAn introductionHo- Won Jeong

First published 2010by Routledge2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RNSimultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Routledge270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa businessThis edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’scollection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. 2010 Ho- Won JeongAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized inany form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafterinvented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage orretrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataJeong, Ho- WonConflict management and resolution: an introduction/Ho- Won Jeongp. cm.1. Conflict management. I. Title. HD42.J45 2010658.49053–dc22ISBN 0-203-86497-2 Master e-book ISBNISBN10: 0-415-45040-3 (hbk)ISBN10: 0-415-45041-1 (pbk)ISBN10: 0-203-86497-2 (ebk)ISBN13: 978-0-415-45040-9 (hbk)ISBN13: 978-0-415-45041-6 (pbk)ISBN13: 978-0-203-86497-5 (ebk)2009021854

For My Mother

ContentsList of tables Preface Part IThe anatomy of conflict resolution and management1 Perspectives on conflict resolutionxxi13The book’s objectives 4Multiple facets of conflict 5Conflict settlement versus resolution 9Structural approaches to conflict resolution 12Methods for dealing with conflict 13Themes and agendas 152 Managing intractable conflict17Conflict evolution 17Mitigation of protracted conflict 20Approaches to conflict prevention 24Context of conflict regulation 26Conflict management strategies 27Theories on decision making 303 Conflict transformationMeanings of transformation 36Transformation of a conflict versus a system 38From management to transformation 42Multiple dimensions of transforming conflict dynamics 44Conditions for relationship change 47Features of actor transformation 48Strategies of transformation 50The scope of transformation 52Challenges to transformation 5436

viii   ContentsPart IIDimensions of conflict management4 Identity5759Identity and conflict mobilization 59Properties and attributes of identity 61Group processes of identity formation 64Social categorization 67Cognitive representation of identity 69Bridging in- group and out- group differences 71De- categorization and re- categorization 73Renegotiation of identities 76Management of identity differences: institutional arrangements 785 Power80The context of a power relationship 80Power relations in conflict process and outcome 83Contingencies in the exercise of power 85Sources of power 87Quest for power and anarchy 90Power symmetry 93Ethnic rivalry 94Power transition 97Rank discrepancy 99The impact of asymmetry on behavior 99Rebalancing power asymmetry 1026 Structure104Structural conditions for conflict resolution 104Functionalist perspectives 108Political instability and conflict 110Violence structure in a failed state 113Extra- system environment 116System and sub- systems 118Boundaries between states and ethnic identity 121Network analysis 123Field theory and conflict 125Part IIISettlement and resolution procedures7 Conceptions and practicePrinciples 131Settlement activities 134Evaluative decision making 136129131

Contents   ixCollaborative problem solving 139Assessing decision-making modes 143Impartiality and neutrality 146Questions of justice 148Ethical issues 1498 Negotiation151The essence of negotiation 151Negotiation process 153Formal bargaining 155Barriers to collaborative bargaining 161Effective negotiation 164Bargaining methods 165Ending strategies 168Distributive versus integrative outcomes 1699 Mediation172Attributes of mediation 172Roles and functions of intermediaries 175Diverse modes of mediation 177Phases and steps in mediation 183Types of mediators 186Assessing mediations 18910 Facilitation192Features of facilitation and dialogue 192Facilitation and empowerment 195Diverse application of facilitation 197Multi- party decision making 199Dialogue forums and process 200Public peace process: the role of dialogue 206Deeper communication: a problem-solving workshop 20911 Reconciliation214Properties of reconciliation 214Steps toward overcoming past enmity 216Restorative practice 220Path to healing 222Empathy with the suffering of the other 223Empowerment through cultural work 225BibliographyIndex227235

Tables2.1 Escalation of Israeli–Palestinian violence, September 28, 2000 toFebruary 2, 20013.1 Recurring conflict, Tibet5.1 Power/moral asymmetry6.1 The status of the Afghan state9.1 A series of meditations in Bosnia10.1 Types of facilitation22–2340101114179198

PrefaceThis book covers processes and methods adopted to end ethnic and other types of conflictswhich have drawn international attention. The imposition of state hegemony has provokedprotracted struggles between governments and ethnic minorities in many parts of Africa,former Yugoslavia, the former Soviet republics, Sri Lanka, and elsewhere. Powerasymmetric relationships have permitted the continued imposition of harsh rule in Tibet,Burma, Spanish Western Sahara, and Chechnya with little prospect for relieving the suffering of the marginalized populations.For the last two decades, we have observed a plethora of activities many of which haveyielded peace accords. Protracted conflicts in South Africa and Northern Ireland eventuallyended with the establishment of new governing structures designed to mend deep layers ofsocial and political rifts. Even after the fighting is over, however, the massacres of innocentcivilians and genocide in Sudan, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Guatemala, and Rwanda have leftbig scars to heal in the future. Reconciliation has become an important cornerstone oftransforming adversarial relationships for coexistence.The complexities of intractable conflicts defy any easy, simple generalization of social,political processes to regulate, mitigate, settle and eventually resolve seemingly irreconcilabledifferences. Yet many of these experiences, both failed and successful, can be comprehendedin conceptual knowledge which can be applicable to other conflicts which continue to flareup. In doing so, the manuscript offers theoretical perspectives that illustrate different featuresof strategies aimed at changing social, psychological dynamics of destructive fights.In covering a various range of conflict management and resolution activities, the mainfeatures of this book center on linking negotiation, mediation, and facilitation methods todifferent stages of conflict. In protracted conflict, mutual understanding of the necessity fortalks can be forged through dialogue or other informal facilitation methods which promotedeeper analysis of the causes and exploration of a way out. When deep mistrust and suspicion dominate negotiation, mediation can be introduced to improve communication andchange perceptions of each other. These processes can be better illuminated by our knowledge about conflict relationships embedded in power, identity, and structures which aredirectly or indirectly related to inducing changes in antagonistic behavior.In completing this manuscript, I am very grateful for the ten anonymous reviewers whooffered valuable comments on shaping various aspects of the manuscript. I also appreciatethe help given by Routledge editor, Andrew Humphreys, for initiating this project as wellas providing editorial comments and suggestions for revisions. My research has been stimulated by the encouragement of such founding scholars of peace and conflict studies asChadwick F. Alger, John W. Burton, Johan Galtung, Elise Boulding, Milton Esman, DavidSinger, Janice Stein, Jurgen Dedring, the late Paul Smoker, and many others.

xii   PrefaceIn understanding the major international conflicts often referred to in this book, I havecertainly benefited from direct and indirect consultation with the following area specialists.Regarding the Middle Eastern peace process, I depended heavily on William Quandt’sinsightful books on the Camp David and US engagement in the conflict between Israel andits neighbors. In understanding conflict between the US and North Korea, I have takenadvantage of work done by Robert Gallucci and Jack Pritchard who shared their valuableinsights of being direct participants in the negotiation process with many of their audiences.Sean Byrne and John Darby’s work has been the most useful in illuminating peace processes in Northern Ireland. My comprehension of conflict transformation has been strengthened by Charles Reilly’s analysis of a peace process in Guatemala and other CentralAmerican countries. Andrea Bartoli’s work on informal intermediary intervention inMozambique has deepened my understanding of a non- state actor’s role in overcoming anadversarial relationship between deeply entrenched foes. Daniel Lieberfeld has presentedan excellent illustration of negotiation for ending the apartheid system in South Africa.I have also greatly benefited from the insights of many of my colleagues, includingCharles Lerche, Charles Snare, Earl Conteh- Morgan, Johannes Botes, and Karen Andrews,who have reviewed various chapters. My graduate assistants Sudha Rajput and KateRomanova have devoted a lot of their time and efforts to bibliographic research and organization of references. Sally Moreland, Rick Langille, Jason Reader, Tammy Rutledge, JohnKelly, and my other students reviewed this manuscript from readers’ perspectives andoffered valuable input. Finally Mary and Nimmy have inspired me to complete thismanuscript.Ho- Won Jeong

Part IThe anatomy of conflictresolution and management

1Perspectives on conflict resolutionConflict is manifested through adversarial social action, involving two or more actors withthe expression of differences often accompanied by intense hostilities. The conditions ofscarcity (for instance, caused by soil degradation or depletion of water in river basins orlakes in Central Africa) and value incompatibilities can become a continuing source ofcontention. Most significantly, protracted conflict arises from the failure to manage antagonistic relationships. Despite economic difficulties and cultural diversity, South Africa andmany other societies have been able to eventually overcome inter- communal rivalries anddevelop various types of institutions which can renegotiate opposing economic and political interests democratically.In Switzerland, the Netherlands and other advanced democratic countries, regional andcultural divergence has not created social disruptions or armed violence. Indeed, opposingroles and positions have been harmonized and institutionally accommodated without thedestruction of the social fabric. In contrast with the coexistence of multi- ethnic communities in Western Europe and North America, religious, language and racial differences haveserved as a means to rally various rival groups in a struggle for power and territorial gainsin many other parts of the world, stretching from the Middle East, Central Asia, theBalkans, and the Caucasus to Latin America. The eruption of uncontrolled violence hascost the loss of many lives, destroyed homes and economic devastation in war- torn societies, most notably Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sri Lanka, and Bosnia- Herzegovina. In understanding conflict, we need to examine the quality of relationshipsthat reveals the way we relate to each other socially, economically and culturally as well ashow political decisions are made.Even though conflict has been treated like an uncontrolled fight in chaotic, lawless societies (as exemplified in Somalia and Afghanistan), differences between opponents can behandled in a non- adversarial manner. In order to establish functional relationships, thesolution should be found through negotiated agreements rather than resorting to violenttactics. The opposing positions can be examined for persuasion via verbal arguments.Traditional models of settling diverse interests focus on the management of disagreement and tension within the constraints of the prevailing system. Various dispute resolutionmechanisms in communities, corporations, and government agencies have been institutionalized to promote a more rule-governed society by handling complaints arising fromemployment relations, poor quality of services, claims over property ownership amongneighbors, or opposition to development projects.In a more destructive, large- scale conflict, deeper sources of resentment might be relatedto economic disparities and political oppression. The United Nations, Organization ofSecurity and Cooperation in Europe, African Union, and other regional organizations have

4   Anatomy of conflict resolution and managementdeveloped conflict mitigation and management mechanisms ranging from fact- finding missions in the cases of human rights abuses or minority rights violations to good offices(designed for assistance in communication between adversarial states in support of easingtensions).Removing misperceptions of adversaries is regarded as a vital step toward settling differences and institutionalizing a new relationship. Indeed, reduced enemy perceptions playa crucial role in initiating a collaborative process. Minimizing value incompatibilities hasto touch upon reconciling a different sense of identity by acknowledging each party’sneeds, intrinsic to their survival and maintenance of dignity. Most importantly, the processand outcome of negotiating different values and incompatible interests reflect not only perceptual, subjective differences but also power relations between dominant and subordinategroups.It is essential to shed light on diverse phenomena, extending from group dynamics tostructural adjustment in an adversarial social system in order to accommodate the vitalinterests and needs of those who have been alienated and suffered from injustice. Whereasa complex conflict has many underlying sources (both structural and psychological), it isnecessary to define conflict in a specific pattern of interactions between opponents beinginfluenced by identity differences and overarching social relations as well as powerasymmetry.One of the primary tasks of conflict resolution is to avert the recurrence of destructiveconflict by qualitatively altering antagonistic relationships. Beyond responding to a fewmanifest, contentious issues, mutually acceptable outcomes stem from finding remedies forpower imbalances and inequitable social and economic relations which are often the mainsource of grievances. The nature of adverse relationships needs to be transformed by supporting consensus on power sharing, enhancement of individual and group well- being aswell as a guarantee of security.A large map of conflict formation and transformation can reveal the nature of a struggleas well as the processes for changing psychological perceptions. There are wide differencesamong conflicts in terms of their scope and group dynamics, as is illustrated by a comparison between the guerrilla warfare in Chechnya and the nonviolent protest against brutalChinese rule in Tibet. In transforming adversarial relationships, we need to investigate howgroup processes are linked to structural conditions. Inter- group relations are constrained bya superimposed political structure as well as by internal group dynamics such as rivalrybetween factions which take different attitudes toward conflict.The book’s objectivesThis book is designed to examine how to manage and resolve conflict, in part, by sheddinglight on the styles and methods of communication in overcoming differences along withthe efforts to minimize the harmful aspects of struggle. It is important to explore diversemodes of interpreting conflict in tandem with the illumination of different ways of tacklinga range of problems arising from competitive relationships within and between societies.The manner of our societies’ response to conflict has broad implications for human well- being and social change. The volume treats reconciliation, along with transformation ofrepressive relations, as an essential part of a conflict resolution process.Keeping the above objective in mind, this book consists of three parts. In Part I, theauthor presents the conceptions of conflict management, settlement and resolution as wellas the examination of processes and strategies to transform conflict. Some conflicts are

Perspectives on conflict resolution   5harder to mitigate due to a deep rooted history of animosities, institutionalization of dominant relations and difficulties in changing an entrenched system of exploitation and suppression. These themes are echoed and conceptualized in the chapters of Part II on identity,power and structure. The chapters thus cover identity formation, the effects of power inconflict outcomes, and the changes in social and political institutions needed to forge newrelationships.Part III looks at different forms of conflict settlement and resolution, ranging from adjudication to arbitration to collaborative problem solving. Various features of negotiation areillustrated by different stages of bargaining and outcomes. Negotiation between warringparties often faces challenges, creating the need for the involvement of mediators who canfacilitate communication and assist in forging compromise. Facilitation is essential to initiating dialogue and promoting understanding of difficult issues which divide communitieswith the aim of building consensus for problem solving. Overall, the main ethos of thisbook is to illustrate both the past and current human endeavors to settle and resolve conflictin such a way as to enhance reconciliation and justice.Multiple facets of conflictDespite its application to a variety of situations, the definition of conflict has traditionallybeen relegated to competition for resources or other interests, value differences or dissatisfaction with basic needs. Incompatible economic and political interests develop an attemptto suppress other groups often with threats and actual use of force. The discovery of oil,uranium and other minerals in Morocco, Nigeria, and Sudan has resulted in governmentattempts to tightly control ethnic minorities along with the refusal of fair sharing ofincomes from mineral exploitation. The growing resentment ignited armed resistancewhich has been followed by government retaliatory attacks on many civilians, causingdestruction of properties, indiscriminate killing, rape, and other abuses which sometimesreach genocidal levels (as has recently been illustrated in Darfur, Sudan).The perception of scarcity often worsens competitive situations by generating an evenstronger desire to have access to the limited resources. The level of competition is thusaffected by the availability and value of the territories or other objects sought simultaneously by rival groups. In the absence of agreeable decision- making rules and acceptednorms on the conduct of behavior, the contest can turn into activities aimed at the destruction of each other.For instance, the 1994 genocide in Rwanda can be attributed to simmering tensionswhich originated from competition between Hutus and Tutsis over arable land for producing coffee beans that generate a major source of export income. The rivalry has naturallygrown into an attempt to control state institutions involved in decision making on the allocation of land and export income. The contest has been further fueled by exclusive ethnicideologies alongside the colonial legacy which granted disproportionate wealth and powerto minority Tutsis.Power struggle is inevitably involved when each group attempts to impose its own language, religious or social values on other groups which have their own unique traditionsand histories. As communal conflict in Sri Lanka and Kashmir for the last several decadesvividly demonstrates, minority groups have a strong desire for autonomy and self- controlof their destiny. In establishing or maintaining a superior status, dominant groups may discriminate against minority ethnic culture or language. Then the newly created hierarchy isused to further control subordinate religious, racial, or linguistic groups.

6   Anatomy of conflict resolution and managementRegardless of wide differences in the types of relationships, “incompatibility of goals”features general characteristics of conflict (Jeong, 2008; Kriesberg, 1998; Mitchell, 2002;Rubin et al., 1994). The pursuit of different objectives leads to interference in each other’sactivities to prevent an opponent from attaining what one group desires. These conditionsof conflict can result in either a sustained conflict or compromise solutions unless a superior party overwhelms and subdues the other side rather quickly. A minority group mayseek outright independence, but the state controlled by a majority ethnic group may opposethe aspiration and even suppress rights to ethnic language and religion. As happened to theindependence of East Timor, the matter can be determined by a popular referendum afterdecades of struggle. In other tense conflict situations, ethnic groups made a compromiseand gave up independence in return for self- rule and the guarantee of expanded politicaland cultural rights. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, negotiations following seriousclashes and armed revolts by ethnic Albanians in Macedonia eventually gave them freedomto teach ethnic languages at various levels of academic institutions and increased politicalrepresentation in the government.In an unregulated competition, claims to scarce status, power, and resources may resultin an attempt to injure or eliminate rivals (Coser, 1956). Incompatible preferences are amore acute source of tension and struggle especially when each party seeks distributiveoutcomes which satisfy one group’s interests at the expense of others. A competitive struggle often arises from a situation where each party’s aspirations cannot be fulfilled simultaneously. The difficulties in dealing with extremist terrorist groups such as al- Qaeda are thattheir actions are not motivated by obtaining specific, tangible, negotiable objectives but bybroad, ideological doctrines which seek the total destruction of an enemy society (blamedfor collective responsibility for the misery in Islamic societies).In a contentious struggle, one group’s perspectives are organized around the primacy oftheir own interests, as each party competes for maximizing gain. In a conflict seen as zero- sum (where one’s gains become the other’s loss), one party has to be induced or forced toyield or withdraw from their quest in the competition in order to avoid serious confrontation. A power- based contest becomes the primary means to determine a winner when contentious competition turns into an unregulated fight.Each group attaches different degrees of importance to their struggles and outcomes,developing divergent perceptions of the incompatible interests. The more desirable oneparty feels winning in contention, the more intense efforts the party is likely to make.Value and identity differences along with economic and social inequality create an intractable source of conflict. Beneath a struggle for territory and wealth lie pride, identity andsecurity. Whereas emotional threat generates the fear of losing what one values, a sense ofinsecurity creates loyalty to one’s own group and hatred toward rival groups.In the absence of a past history of cooperation, aggressive actions are more likely to beignited in polarized communities where leaders develop antagonistic attitudes toward eachother. A long period of conflict entrapment increases the likelihood of greater rigidity andpolarization with the reinforcement of mistrust, enemy perceptions and feelings of victimization. The stereotypes of an enemy and misunderstanding of their motives justify thedenial of the legitimacy of opposing claims.The institutionalization of negative interactions is inherent in conflicts fueled by manyyears of accumulated hostilities. This is vividly represented by recurrent provocations andconfrontations between the Sudanese government and southern provinces which seek independence. When an intense struggle permeates the social fabric with its effect on individuals and institutions, a vicious cycle of destructive struggles touches multi- faceted

Perspectives on conflict resolution   7layers of adversarial relationships. As every aspect of social life is dominated by violence,the necessity to cope with conflict influences mundane daily decisions. For instance, Israelis (exposed to rocket and mortar fire from Gaza) have to curtail their outdoor activitieswhile Palestinians (hit by frequent Israeli military strikes) need to look for safe shelters.In addition, conflict preoccupies political and intellectual agendas filtered through thepublic domain. Even cultural and educational systems are adapted to the support of the justification of ideologies and values mobilized for the conflict. While Jewish school trips toholocaust sites in Poland are intended for the remembrance of past sufferings, they unintentionally re- traumatize the new generation and turn them into supporters of harsh government measures against Palestinians. As the quality of life further deteriorates owing to theIsraeli closure of their borders, Palestinians in Gaza develop further resentment, passing iton to their children who grow up with the language of hatred and demonization of Jews.In a deadlocked conflict rooted in historical, collective memories (of centuries of foreignoccupation and war, for instance, in the Balkans), winning a conflict becomes a matter ofsurvival. Individuals and groups are adapted to conflict realities filled with new and oldanimosities and prejudices against opponents. Old memories are evoked to strengthen thewill to fight on regardless of continuing suffering and loss. Inter- group differentiation ismade clearer by an emphasis on exclusive symbols attached to the group’s current experience and history, reflecting on a sense of legitimacy about one’s own claims and feelingsof victimization. These symbols further intensify the dividing lines between us versusthem.The tensions between Unionists and Nationalists in Northern Ireland have been symbolized by the Orange Order marches which celebrate the Protestant victory over the Catholicsat the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690. The migration of unemployed rural Catholics toparts of the traditional routes of the marches created controversy, as Catholics interpret thecelebration as a provocation to show who is superior. Protestants regard any attempt torestrict their freedom to walk through what have been the traditional routes for centuries asa move to marginalize their Protestant identity.The politicization of religion and other identity bases creates difficulties in reconcilingdifferent positions. In a deeply rooted power struggle, every issue becomes perceived asincompatible and non-negotiable by partisans. As differences are not regarded asreconcilable, it is difficult to moderate or change one’s behavior that is deemed necessaryfor bringing the fight to an end. In a total conflict, every member of an adversary groupbecomes a potential object of indiscriminate attacks.Behavioral and psychological aspects of pathological conflictIn antagonistic group mobilization, a high degree of tension is manifested in the threateneduse of force as well as verbal confrontations. Indeed, anger, hatred, and dehumanization areamplified by demeaning verbal communication and degrading nonverbal behavior. Theinitial use of violence may be aimed at achieving limited objectives and demonstratingone’s unyielding commitment and will often combine with the manifestation of frustration.The uncontrolled emotional, psychological aspects of conflict can be an obstacle to resolving differences in substantive issues. As observed in many internal wars in Africa, thedestructive side of a complex conflict can be ascribed to perceptual, attitudinal, and behavioral distortion which even entails gross humanitarian crimes often chara

Conflict Management and Resolution Conflict Management and Resolution provides students with an overview of the main theories of conflict management and conflict resolution, and will equip them to respond to the complex phenomena of international conflict

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