THE RELEVANCE OF CULTURE AND PERSONALITY STUDIES,
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)www.elkjournals.com THE RELEVANCE OF CULTURE AND PERSONALITY STUDIES,NATIONAL CHARACTER STUDIES, CULTURAL DETERMINISM ANDCULTURAL DIFFUSION IN TWENTY-FIRST CENTURYANTHROPOLOGY: AS ASSESSMENT OF THEIR COMPATIBILITYWITH SYMBIOTIC MODELS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL CHANGESujay Rao MandavilliResearch ScholarAbstractThis paper re-examines the core tenets of our “Proactive-interactive-symbiotic approach to longterm cultural change”, also known as the “Symbiotic School of socio-cultural change”, againstthe backdrop of eminent pre-existing schools of thought such as the Culture and PersonalitySchool, Cultural Determinism, Cultural Relativism, and diffusionist schools such as the BritishSchool, the German School and the American School, and other ethnographic methods andtechniques to revalidate their pliability and pertinence in diverse situations. This apparentlymacroscopic approach is also interfaced with existing theories on personality and character andwith our concepts of Mind-orientation and Mindspace as well. This will lead to a strengtheningand revivification of all the concepts enshrined in these schools of thought, albeit in a modifiedform to suit the needs of the changed circumstances of the Twenty-first century, without in anyway undermining their core postulates. Our underlying tenor of activism and long-termperspective is carried forward to this paper as well, as are also all the concepts of the philosophyof “Neo-centrism”. We also briefly touch upon the efficacy of cultural symbiosis and osmosis inpromoting socio-cultural integration both across and within cultures, and discuss the concepts ofmind-orientation, mindspace and thought-worlds threadbare, and take them to their logicalconclusion. We also argue that Symbiotic approaches to socio-cultural changes are the only wayforward in the Twenty-first century. We also like to strike a cautionary note here: Internallyinduced changes and Cultural area-specific changes will play a critical role in all future changescenarios, and it would be necessary to understand the role played by different change agents,and their relative importance in all futuristic models. We conclude by discussing the potentialreal-world applications of Symbiotic Models of socio-cultural change.
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)Introduction and objective of this paperAn introduction to the Symbiotic school ofsocio-cultural change along with itsfundamental postulates was presented in ourpaper“Articulatingcomprehensiveframeworks on socio-cultural change:Perceptions of social and cultural change ‘Neo-centrist’1perspective”. This paper argued that thefocus would gradually shift away fromContact-driven scenarios to non contactdriven scenarios of Socio-cultural change. Atthe same time, internally-induced change andcontact-driven scenarios would also continueto exist into the foreseeable future, and playtheir own unique roles in influencing sociocultural change. This objective of this paperis to examine the validity of different schoolsof thought such as the ‘Culture andPersonality’ school, the ‘National Character’school, and various diffusionist schoolswhich had a wide following in the early partof the Twentieth Century in the changedcircumstances of the post-globalized Twentyfirst century. We do this by reviewing all thekey literature that was ever produced on thesubject. In this paper, we also take theconcepts of Mind-orientation, Mindspace,Thought-worlds, and Societal orientations totheir logical conclusion, and furnish a iculating comprehensive frameworks on socio-cultural change:Perceptions of social and cultural change in contemporary Twentyfirst century Anthropology from a ‘Neo-centrist’ perspective” SRMandavilli, ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, 2017Culture is one of the most commonlydiscussed topics under the sun, and also oftenthe most widely misunderstood. This isperhaps why there are many differentdefinitions of culture (A count placed thetotal number of definitions at over threehundred) but the most important definitionsof culture and the most oft-cited arereproduced below. These definitions arechosen to bring out the essence of the term‘culture’:EB Tylor in his book “Primitive Culture(1871) stated, “Culture, in its broadestethnographic sense is that complex wholewhich includes knowledge, belief, arts,morals, laws, customs and any capabilities orhabits acquired by man as a member ofsociety.” According to a definition providedby the German sociologist Georg Simmel,“Culture is the cultivation of the individualthrough the agency of external forms whichhave been objectified in the course ofhistory,”AccordingtoBronislawMalinowski, “Culture is an instrumentalreality and apparatus for the satisfaction ofbiological and derived need. It is the integralwhole consisting of implements in consumergoods, of constitutional characters of thevarious social groupings, of human ideas andcrafts, beliefs and customs.” (Malinowski,1944:1) According to Melville J. Herskovitz,“Culture is the man made part of theenvironment. It therefore includes materialobjects of human manufacture, techniques,social orientations, points of view andsanctioned ends that are the immediate
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)conditioning factors underlying behaviour.”(Herskovitz, 1948:17) According to MarvinHarris, “A culture is the total sociallyacquired life-way or life-style of a group ofpeople. It consists of the patterned, repetitiveways of thinking, feeling and acting that arecharacteristic of the members of a particularsociety or segment of society. (Harris1975:144)E.A. Hoebel provides thefollowing definition, “Culture is theintegrated system of learned behaviourpatterns which are characteristic of themembers of the society, and which are not aresult of biological inheritance.” (Hoebel1966) According to Kroeber and Kluckholn,“Culture consists of patterns, explicit andimplicit, of and for behaviour acquired andtransmitted by symbols, constituting thedistinct achievements of human groups,including their embodiments in artefacts.”(Kroeber and Kluckholn (1952). 2 3 4 5 6observation, initiation, informal or semiformal training, assimilation and emulation.Culture therefore often provides people withyardsticks to control their behavior andperceive the world. For example, mostHindus do not like the idea of consumingBeef, given the importance of the Cow in theancient Indian economy. Contrarily, pigs areconsidered unclean by Muslims, and its meatis forbidden in the Qu’ran. Another exampleis language which is usually sub-consciouslylearnt by members of a cultural group,commonly without any formal training.Learned behavior may also be formallycommunicated to other members of the groupthrough instruction, reward and punishment.Cultural norms are thus learnt by man as amember of society, and often gounquestioned.The following attributes of culture logicallyemanate from these definitions:A symbol is something verbal or nonverbal,linguistic or non-linguistic, (Examples beingsounds, gestures, objects and images) whichstands for something within that culture, andis crucial to cultural representation andlearning. Symbolic thought is unique tohuman culture, and often conveys powerfulmeaning. According to Leslie White,“Culture is dependent on symbolizing culture consists of tools, implements,utensils, clothing, ornaments, customs,institutions, beliefs, rituals, games, works ofart, language, etc.” (White, 1959) Accordingto G H Mead, society is an exchange ofgestures which involves the use of symbols.Thus, the study of culture involves a semioticfunction as well. Thus, culture typicallyCulture is socially learnedBeliefs and values are often relative, culturespecific and learnt by members of a groupthrough initiation or interaction with othermembers of the group, or by children though2Anthropology 12th Edition Carol R.Ember, Melvin Ember, Peter N.Peregrine Pearson Prentice Hall 20073 Cultural Anthropology, Barbara Miller, Sixth Edition, PHI LearningPrivate Limited, 20114 Cultural Anthropology: Appreciating Cultural Diversity, McGrawHill Internal Edition, Conrad Phillip Kottak5 Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development ofMythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom, EB Tylor6Malinowski, B. (1944). A Scientific Theory of Culture and OthersEssays. Chapel Hill, N. Carolina: The University of North CarolinaPressCulture is symbolic
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)involves a mix of symbolic and zed symbolism in culture haveincluded Clifford Geertz, Claude LeviStrauss and Emile Durkheim. Many aspectsof culture such as confirmatory rituals,transformatory rituals and rituals of liminalityincorporate a symbolic component too, andmany symbols such as the Hindu symbol for“Om” may convey a very powerful meaningto members sharing a culture.Culture is sharedIf just one person in a group acted andthought in a particular way, it would beconsidered to be a personal characteristic andnot symbolic of a culture itself. On the otherhand, cultural traits are common to most, ifnot all members in the group. For example,child marriage is considered to be morallywrong in most Western and even manyOriental societies, but in still common inparts of Africa and India, and legislation tooutlaw it has only just begun. Even thoughtraits are generally common to most membersof a cultural group, there is always scope forindividual variation, and this is accepted bymost Anthropologists. These are sometimesreferred to as outliers or deviant behavior. Ifchanges are introduced by individuals in asociety, they must be sufficiently wellentrenched and irreversible to be consideredas examples of cultural change.Culture is an expression of human natureEven though culture is non-biological per se,it teaches humans how to express their innatebiological proclivities, urges and instincts.For example, culture teaches people when,how and what to eat. It teaches them how tointeract with their parents, elders, teachersand children. It also teaches them how torespond to specific situations and react tostimuli such as fright, pain etc.Culture is all-encompassingCulture governs almost every aspect ofpeople’s lives, including in societies whichwould be considered to be liberal. Itdetermines and dictates to varying degrees,what people do almost every moment of theirlives. This would explain why, for example,why the Amercians play baseball and whyIndians don’t. It would explain whyAmericans have no qualms or inhibitions ineating pork which the Muslims consider ataboo. It would also serve to explain whysome cultures are more innovative, energeticand dynamic, and why some cultures are lessinnovative and inventive, inward-looking orregressive. Culture therefore, includes allaspects of material culture, technology, arts,music, literature, cuisine, myths, legends,religion etc, and even impinges on aspectssuch as economic systems.Culture is integrated and patternedCultures are not unstructured sets of customsand beliefs. Cultures are integrated andpatterned sets of customs and beliefs. If oneaspect of a culture changes, it causes rippleeffects in other aspects of culture as well.Cultures are therefore highly structured beliefsystems, most aspects of which are tightlyintegrated with one another, even thoughthere may be exceptions.
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)Culture is instrumental and adaptiveUnlike primates and other animals which relyon instincts and reflexes, or other biologicalmeans of adaptation to help them survive andadapt to a limited extent, it is a widely knownfact that humans alone possess intellect andthe power of reasoning. Culture, and theability to acquire, transmute and transmitcultural traits is one attribute which hasplayed a key role in the success of humans.Thus, trait are usually designed to ensure thesuccess of a culture. However, there can beexceptions. For example, some tribes of NewGuinea consider women to be dangerous andunclean, and best avoided. As such a notionwould be largely counter-productive, thiswould either lead to the demise of the culture,or by itself would need to disappear. This isknown as maladaptivity.age. Various theories have been proposed toidentify the rate of cultural change and thedegree of inventiveness of man. Theseinclude unilinear models, multilinear models,cyclical models, and diffusionist approaches.Cultural change is primarily a process ofadaptation similar to Biological NaturalSelection.Culture can be inheritedCulture is designed to satisfy the biologicaland social needs of individuals and must becompatible with them. If certain elements ofculture do not fulfill the wants or needs ofhumans, they may be replaced, modified ormade redundant in the long-run.Culture is usually inherited from elders in asociety through a complex process ofenculturation. Children usually inherit mostaspects of a culture from their parents.However, this is subject to change as peopleare subject to other influences throughouttheir lives, such as peer-pressure. Thus, theculture that children transmit to their childrenis often different from what they receive fromtheir parents. The latter either retains somecore elements intact, modifies themconsiderably, or adds or deletes someelements from the mix. This takes place fromgeneration to generation and invariably andinevitably leads to cultural change. Thus,culture is transmitted both vertically (acrossgenerations), and horizontally (within ageneration).Culture evolvesCultures operate as cognitive systemCulture evolves constantly. This is chieflydue to technological and social factors andthe inventive nature of man. This is oftencited as one of the major causes for thesuccess of man in comparison to otheranimals. Human culture has evolved andchanged greatly from the Stone Age and thehunter-gatherer stage to the modern industrialCultures are often seen as systems ofknowledge which are designed to serve theneeds to its members. According to WardGoodenough:Culture is gratifyingA society's culture consists of whatever it isone has to know or believe in order to operatein a manner acceptable to its members.
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)Culture is not a material phenomenon; it doesnot consist of things, people, behaviour, oremotions. It is rather an organization of thesethings. It is the form of things that peoplehave in mind, their models for perceiving,relating, and otherwise interpreting them (32,p. 167).Culture is shaped by the environmentIt is also widely accepted that environmentsets constraints on culture. There are differentschools of thought in this regard. Forexample, Cultural ecologists study howhumans adapt to social and physicalenvironments. Human adaptation here mayrefer to either biological or cultural processesthat enable a population to survive andreproduce in an environment. CulturalPossibilism is the belief that the environmentsets certain constraints or limitations onculture, but culture is otherwise determinedby other conditions as well.4. Symbols and Language: These carry(often powerful) meanings that caneasily be understood by peoplebelonging to the same culture.5. Cultural Beliefs: These compriseideas and statements that people of aculture hold to be true.6. Behavioural patterns: These refer tothe way people of a culture behave orcarry out their regular or otheractivities.7. Cultural traits or attributes: These arethe simplest and the smallest units ofa particular culture and are sometimesreferred to as the building blocks of aculture.8. Cultural Artefacts: Material objectssuch as pottery and seals are referredto as Cultural Artefacts.9. SocialInstitutions:Institutionspromoting political control, legalsanctions or administration are knownas solution institutions. Examples ofthese are the courts, the judiciary etc.Components of CultureWhat is Ethnography?Culture consists of the following elements:1. Cultural Values: Cultural valuesdetermine what is good, proper orappropriate in a given context, andwhat is not.2. Cultural Norms: Cultural norms referto standard patterns of behaviour thatare accepted in a society.3. Cultural Sanctions: These compriserewards and penalties which are usedto enforce norms and punish thosewho do not comply with norms.A standard definitionEthnography is:oftheterm“The term Ethnography refers to a systematicstudy of different peoples and cultures. It isthe study of people in naturally occurringsettings or ‘fields’ by means of methodswhich capture their social meanings andordinary activities, involving the researcherparticipating directly in the setting, if not alsothe activities, in order to collect data in a
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)systematic manner but without meaningbeing imposed on them externally.” 7 8 9This term has its origins in the Greek term‘ethos’ which means people or nation.Ethnography encompasses ying quantitative techniques maybe utilized), usually carried out from an emicperspective or exploring thought worlds fromthe inside of the culture. Etic paradigms mayhowever, assist in Ethnographic studies andpermit a broader generalization. Keyterminologies used in the field ofEthnography include ‘Ethnocentrism’ or thebelief in the superiority of one’s own culture(This approach appears to be vindicated fromthe writings of James Frazer, EB Tylor andothers and is also equated with Euro centrismand the Psychic unity of Mankind. The termitself was coined by William GrahamSumner), ‘Cultural Relativism’ (This impliesthat each culture is unique in its own right),‘Cultural Determinism’ (The belief that aculture determines a person’s emotionalmakeup or behaviour and is the keydeterminant in defining a person’sworldview; per Leslie A. White, culture islike a matrix which is governed by its ownlaws of growth and operation). A variant isthe ‘Theory of technological determinism’7Ethnography John D. Brewer, Oxford UniversityPress, 20008What is Ethnography? Methodological, Ontological,and Epistemological Attributes,Tony L. Whitehead,Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Maryland9Ethnography: John D. Brewer Open University PressPhiladelphia, 2000states that technology is the biggestdeterminant of social change, and was soughtto be applied in the context of developedeconomies.The science of Ethnography has had severalstages(whichincludeArmchairAnthropology, Verandah Anthropology andFieldwork, which included ParticipantObservation techniques, for example. Othertechniques such as interviews, surveys andthe use of questionnaires are also popular inEthnography.EarlyArmchairAnthropologists included Lewis HenryMorgan, Henry Maine, E B Tylor, JamesFrazer and RR Marett. Some Ethnographicstudies were also conducted by FrancisBuchanan, W H R Rivers, Charles Seligmanand others in India. Modern Ethnographybegan with Bronislaw Malinowski’s study ofthe Trobriand Islanders and A R RadcliffeBrown’s study of the Andamanese tribes, theresults of which were published in the early1920’s. These two studies brought the muchvaunted “Participant Observation technique”into the forefront of Ethnographic studies.This approach, though commendable and avast improvement over arm-chair techniques,has been sometimes associated with theunconscious imposition of a Westernworldview and interpretive-bias. Only overthe past few years, has a trend towards trulycollaborative approaches become discerniblewith the constitution of multi-cultural teams.Polyphonyand multivocality howevercontinue to elude us till date, and the issuemay now warrant a grounds-up re-
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)examinationbias.10 11 12toeliminatesub-consciousThe following are the foundations uponwhich the science of Ethnography has beenbased, and we expect these to be carriedforward into the Twenty-first century:Objectivity: The researcher tries to be asobjective as possible, and tries not to let hispersonal biases and prejudices cloud hisvision. This necessitates flexibility and selfcorrection. Thus, Ethnography involves acontinuous learning process, and not rigidinterpretation.Emic perspective: The researcher tries tounderstand all aspects of a culture from thepoint of view of the participant. Thus, thisapproach involves extensive fieldwork toidentify what is normal in a given context.Fieldwork is designed to capture a culture inaction. It involves a study of a culture in itsnatural settings, and helps to understand itsinner workings without any bias or prejudice.In order to achieve this, an ethnographer mayform relationships with his subjects of studywithin ethical boundaries in order toaccomplish a greater empathy and bettercross-cultural understanding.10Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An account of native enterpriseand adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea.London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Malinowski, B. (1922).11The Andaman Islanders; a study in social anthropology. A RRadcliffe Brown (1922)12 Hall, E. T. (1976) Beyond Culture. New York: DoubledayHolism: Ethnographers attempt to grapplewith the whole gamut of human experienceand study aspects such as religion, myths,economic systems etc. It also includes topicssuch as feminism and subaltern studies.In-depth studies: In-depth studies as opposedto surface studies are the norm. Ethnographyoften includes extremely detailed studiessuch as case studies, longitudinal studies andpanel studies, and elaborate fieldwork toboot.Study across time and space: Cultures areusually studied across time and space, andthis usually includes its relationship withother cultures. This is referred to a crosscultural frame of research and cultural areaanalysis. A school of thought which is knownas Historical Particularism studies therelationship between a culture’s past and itspresent. There is also an interface betweenCultural Anthropology and Historiographyalthough the objectives of the two fields ofstudy are prima facie different.Ethical approach and humanism: Ethicalapproaches such as informed consent andprotection of confidentiality are usuallyfollowed during the course of fieldwork.Ethnographic research also usually reflectshumanistic values and concerns.Generalization and theorization: Another keyobjective of Ethnography is to collect data topromote generalized concepts and generatenew theories so that these can be suitablyused for the study of other cultures. Thus,ethnography possesses nomothetic properties
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)in addition to epistemological and ontologicalattributes.An overview of the various schools ofthought in Cultural AnthropologyThe oldest school of thought in modernCultural Anthropology is the Unilinearapproach to evolution. Unilineal models ofEvolution or related models were proposedby EB Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan,Montesquieu, Michel de Montaigne, J JBachofen and McLennon. Stages ofEvolution such as hunting and gathering,pastoralism and nomadism, agricultural, andcommerce were alsoproposed byEnlightenment thinkers such as Adam Smith,Adam Fergusson and John Miller. Marx’sconceptsofPrimitiveCommunism,Savagery, Barbarism, Capitalism andCommunism were also greatly influenced bythe writings of Lewis Henry Morgan. AugustComte, who is better known for hisphilosophy of positivism, spoke about theTheological Stage, the Metaphysical Stage,and the Age of Reason, the last of whichwould see an increase in scientific output andendeavour and a decline in religion andwarfare.Christian Jorgensen Thomsendeveloped the Three-age system consisting ofthe Stone Age, the Copper and the Iron Age.Lubbock spoke about the Age of the Drift,when man shared space with Mammoths, thelater or the polished Stone age, the Copperage, the Bronze age and the Iron Age.According to J G Frazer, society passedthrough the magical stage, religious stage andthe scientific stage. According to RobertRedfield who is known for his folk-urbancontinuum studies, society transitioned fromfolk society to urban society. Marquis deCondorcet believed that human societypassed through ten distinct stages, eachleading to its betterment and perfecting thehuman race. Unilinear Evolution was alsosupported by in some form by Hobhouse, CH Simon, Levi-Bruhl and William GrahamSumner.This approach was somewhateuphemistically referred to as the ‘PsychicUnity of Mankind’ or Culture with a capitalC, (Ingold) and lent credence to monistmovements. Nonetheless, this approachappears to have been tainted with Eurocentrism and racism and was used to justifycolonialism and oppression. It assumed thatWestern values were superior and wouldreplace value systems in other parts of theworld.Despite many criticisms of Euro centrism,early Anthropologists made many seminalcontributions to the study of other y was pre-occupied with thestudy of “Primitive” cultures. This was basedon Montaigne’s observation that cultures indistant, far-off lands were different fromthose in Europe. E E Evans Prichard alsoemphasized that social anthropology shouldencompass the study of all cultures withparticular emphasis on “Primitive” cultures.In later years, John Beatie, Thomas HyllandEriksen and others continued to advocate theimportance of study of other cultures,particularly minor and non-industrial ones. A.R. Radcliffe Brown, for example, studied theindigenous tribes of Andaman and NicobarIslands in India, while Bronislaw Malinowski
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)studied the Trobriand Islanders of Melanasia.Franz Boas undertook an expedition toBritish Columbia while A C Haddon and WH R Rivers undertook the Torres Straitsexpedition. Henri Maine and CharlesSeligman worked in India while E E EvansPritchard studied the Nuer tribes and LewisHenri Morgan studied the Iroquois tribe. Inspite of this, the interest in exotic culturesappeared to have waned after the end ofcolonialism, as such places were no longerreadily accessible.Neo-evolution was introduced by JulianSteward and Leslie A White. According toLeslie A White, the energy harnessed nuindividuals was the correct measure to assesshuman evolution. Marshall Sahlins andElman Service distinguished betweenGeneral Evolution and Specific Evolution,and this approach gave allowance for culturespecific sequences and patterns of evolution.According to Julian Steward, technoeconomic component of culture was moregeneric when compared to peripheral culturewhich was context-specific. Peter Peregrinealso analyzed the long-term growth anddevelopment of cultures and developed aCultural Complexity index that was laterused by George Peter Murdock.Another school of thought is the Cyclicaltheory of change which was proposed byOswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee.According to them, civilizations rise, declineand fall over a period in time and have apredetermined life cycle, namely birth,growth, maturity and decline. In some cases,societies may rise again under a favourableset of circumstances. P.A. Sorokin proposedthe ‘Pendular theory of social change’ whichwas a variant of the Cyclical theory.According to this theory, the course ofhistory was continuous, though irregular,fluctuating between the sensate and theideational.Conflict theories take into account theprinciples of dialectics as critical to theunderstanding of the causes of change.According to A.W Green, “Conflict is thedeliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coercethe will of another or others.” Georg Simmelbelieved that there were four types ofconflicts, namely, War, Feud or FactionalStrife, Litigation, and Conflict of Impersonalideas. According to this school of thought,every action, belief and interaction tended togenerate some kind of a reaction. Forexample, the oppression of ordinary workersusually generated a class struggle andultimately led to a revolution. According tothe theory of power elites proposed by C.Wright Mills, a small group of people at thetop of society known as the power elitestended to manipulate power for their ownselfish ends, thereby triggering conflicts withthe society at large. According to proponentsof the conflict school, change was rarelysmooth, and typically took place to correctsocial injustice and inequality. Severaltheorists other than Karl Marx and Paretoalso contributed to the conflict theory. Forexample, Max Gluckman who founded theManchester school of thought, focussed oninternal and external conflicts, contradictionsand inconsistencies in daily life. Otherprominent conflict theorists were Walter
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCEISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)Bagelot, George Vold, Georg Simmel, RalfDahrendorf, Ludwig Gumplowicz andGustav Ratzenhofer.Social Darwinism is the theory that NaturalSelection and principles such as the ‘Survivalof the fittest’ can be used in social andcultural contexts in addit
2 Anthropology 12th Edition Carol R.Ember, Melvin Ember, Peter N. Peregrine Pearson Prentice Hall 2007 3 Cultural Anthropology, Barbara Miller, Sixth Edition, PHI Learning Private Limited, 2011 4 Cultural Anthropology: Appreciating Cultural Diversi
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More than words-extreme You send me flying -amy winehouse Weather with you -crowded house Moving on and getting over- john mayer Something got me started . Uptown funk-bruno mars Here comes thé sun-the beatles The long And winding road .
