The Solar Flux Planets further from the Sun than the Earth shouldbe colder since the receive less solar heating
Solar Power At EarthIf the Earth intercepted all of the Sun’s energy, the oceans wouldevaporate in 10 seconds.The energy a planet receives (per second) is the incident flux(energy per unit area per second) times the projected area ofthe planetIncident flux (solar luminosity)/(area of sphere radius 1 AU) L/4πD2D 1AUProjected area of the Earth πR2 R radius of the earthSo the Earth receives(incident flux)(projected area) LR2/4D2 2 1017Watts of solar radiation
Energy BalanceThat energy has to go somewhere – if it simplystayed on the Earth, the Earth would get steadilyhotter with timeBut the Earth’s temperature is roughly constant, sothe Earth must be losing the energy againBut how?
Key Ideas:Temperature (Kelvin Scale) Measures internal energy content.Blackbodies:A hot, dense object produces a continuousspectrum (blackbody spectrum).Stefan-Boltzmann law, Wien Law.
The Interaction of Light & MatterLight & Matter can interact in a number ofdifferent ways: Matter can transmit light (glass, water). Matter can reflect light. Matter gains energy by absorbing light. Matter loses energy by emitting light.The last two (absorption and emission) bearon the internal energy of the matter.
TemperatureTemperature is a measurement of the internalenergy content of an object.Solids: Higher temperature means higher averagevibrational energy per atom or molecule.Gases: Higher temperature means more averagekinetic energy (faster speeds) per atom ormolecule.
Cool GasHot GasSlow Average SpeedsFaster Average Speeds
Kelvin Temperature ScaleAn absolute temperature system: Developed by Lord Kelvin (19th century) Uses the Celsius temperature scaleAbsolute Kelvin Scale (K): 0 K Absolute Zero (all motion stops) 273 K pure water freezes (0º Celsius) 373 K pure water boils (100º C)Advantage: The total internal energy is directly proportionalto the temperature in Kelvins.
Black Body RadiationA Blackbody is an object that absorbs all light. Absorbs at all wavelengths. As it absorbs light, it heats up. Characterized by its Temperature.It is also a perfect radiator: Emits at all wavelengths (continuous spectrum) Energy emitted depends on Temperature. Peak wavelength depends on Temperature.The Sun and the Planets are not perfect blackbodies, but they are close enough .
Stefan-Boltzmann LawFlux energy emitted per second per area bya blackbody with Temperature (T):F !T4σ is Boltzmann's constant (a number).In Words:“Hotter objects are Brighter at All Wavelengths”Iron plate at temperature T radiates F.Its total luminosity is L F x Area.For a sphere: L F x Area F x 4 π R2
Wien’s LawRelates peak wavelength and Temperature:2,900,000nm! peak TIn Words:“Hotter objects are BLUER” (have spectra thatpeak at shorter wavelength, higher frequency)“Cooler objects are REDDER” (have spectra thatpeak at longer wavelength, lower frequency)
Hotter objects are brighter atall wavelengths Hotter objects are bluer (peakat shorter wavelengths)Infrared05001000nm15002000
Examples:Heat an iron bar from 300 to 600K Temperature increases by 2 Brightness increases by 24 16 Peak wavelength shifts towards theblue by 2 from 10µm in the midInfrared to 5µm in the near-Infrared.Result of heating any blackbody: Gets brighter at all wavelengths Gets bluer in color
Example – The Light BulbThe filament in a light bulb is about 0.6m long and 0.000064m indiameter, giving it an area ofarea A (length)(circumference) π(length)(diameter) 10-4m2Using electricity we then heat the filament to about T 2200K, soit emitsflux F σT4 1.3 106 Watts/m2Giving a total luminosity ofL (flux)(area) FA 130 WattsAt a peak wavelength ofλmax (2.9 106/T)nm 1300nm (it peaks in the infrared)Incandescent bulbs produce more heat than light, which is whyfluorescent bulbs (which are not black bodies) are more efficient
Example - YouYou have a surface area of aboutarea A 2 (2.0m 0.5m) 2m2Your body temperature is about T 310K, so it emitsflux F σT4 500 Watts/m2Giving a total luminosity ofL (flux)(area) FA 1000 WattsAt a peak wavelength ofλmax (2.9 106 /T)nm 10000nm (in the infrared)But – everything around you is about the same temperature,so the NET energy loss (or gain) is much smaller
The SunThe surface temperature of the Sun is T 5800 K, so the fluxemerging from the surface of the Sun isF σT4 6.4 107 Watts/m2 64 megawatts/m2So a patch 4m 4m puts out the power of a 1 gigawatt electrical plant!The total solar luminosity is the flux times the surface area of the sunL 4πR 2F 3.9 1026 WattsThe peak wavelength isλmax (2.9 106 /T)nm 500nm (it peaks in the green)Your eyes work where the Sun puts out most of its light. It doesn’t look greenbecause of the details of how the eye determines color and the shape of the blackbody spectrum – we see black bodies in the sequence red, yellow, blue-white,white as they get hotter (just like the light bulb experiment).
The EarthThe mean surface temperature of the Earth is T 293 K (20o C).Assuming it is a black body, the emitted flux isF σT4 420Watts/m2The total luminosity is the flux times the surface area of the EarthL 4πR2F 2.1 1017 WattsAt a peak wavelength ofλmax (2.9 106/T)nm 10000nm (the infrared)
The EarthThis emitted luminosity is almost exactly equal to the amount comingfrom the Sun – this is not a coincidenceHeating by the Sun has to be exactly balanced by cooling if theEarth’s temperature is to be (roughly) constantThe only way the Earth can cool is to emit radiation into space.Thus, the average temperature of a planet is a competition betweenthe radiation coming from the sun and the radiation emitted by theplanet with the temperature of the planet is determined by where thetwo balance.
The Expected Temperature of a PlanetFor a planet of radius R at distance D, the solar heating rate (Watts) isL (solar flux at the planet) x (projected area of planet) (Lsun/4πD2) x (πR2planet) LsunR2planet /4D2For a planet of radius R and temperature T, the cooling rate (Watts) isL (black body flux) x (surface area of planet) (σT4planet) x (4πR2planet) 4πR2 σT4
The Expected Temperature of a PlanetIn equilibrium, these two must be equal (or the temperature wouldeither rise or fall to compensate)σT4planet Lsun/16πD2Note that the radius of the planet cancels and the equilibriumtemperature depends only on the luminosity of the sun and thedistance of the planet from the sunT 279 (AU/D)1/2 KFor the Earth, this is close to freezing (273K) and colder than theactual mean temperature (293K)
Does T 279(AU/D)1/2 K work?Planet D/AUMercury 0.39Venus 0.72Earth1.00Mars1.52Jupiter 5.20Saturn 9.57Uranus 19.19Neptune 30.07Pluto 39.54actual T623K750K293K220K163K93K57K57K50Kpredicted T450K rotation orbit328K huge green house effect!279K226K122K radiates more than it gets90K64K51K44KSorta, kinda, right, but we missed some details – planets reflectsome sunlight, and clouds modify things (greenhouse effect).
planet) 2 2L sun R planet /4D For a planet of radius R and temperature T, the cooling rate (Watts) is L (black body flux) x (surface area of planet) 24 4 (σT planet) x (4πR2 planet) 4πRσT. The Expected Temperature of a Planet In equilibrium, these two must be equal (or
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AISI 4340 o.oa 20 30 FLUX ADDITION (wt.%) J I I I 60 50 40 30 Mn O IN THE FLUX (wt.%) 20 Fig. 3 — Delta weld metal silicon as a function of flux additions to a man ganese silicate flux used in submerged arc welding of AISI 4340 steel. A -Si02-MnO-CaF2 FLUX O -Si02-MnO-CaO FLUX AISI 4340 -Si02-MnO-FeO FLUX Si02 40 w/o (constant) !J 0.06 z
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