Essential Modern Greek Grammar - The Eye

SpellingAs in the case of English, the correspondence betweenspelling and pronunciation in Greek is not exact and there area number of rules to remember as you pronounce ModernGreek spelling:1. There are several different symbols for one sound:a)κ πος kίpos (garden), λίγο lígho (a little), μ γα mίgha (fly),θεîος thίos (uncle), μοîρα mίra (fate, lot), νἰὸς iόs (son). Hand ει are often used interchangeably in Modern Greekspelling: ἢμουνα, εἲμοννα ímoona (I was).b)κόττα kόta (hen), ζώνη zόni (belt).c)μέρα méra (day), παίζω pέzο (I play).2. The same symbol may have different sounds:25

a)παύση páfsi (pause), παντρεύτηκα pandréftika (I was married);μα ρος máυrοs (black), γυρεύω yiréυο (I turn).b)σβούρa zvόοra (a top), ὁ Φίλος μου o fíloz moo (my friend), τς λίγης ἂρμης tiz líghis ármis (a little salt water), butσλαυϊκóς slaνikόs (Slavic). Note that the symbol -ς is onlyused at the end of a Greek word.c) π, τ, κ p, t, k but are pronounced b, d, g when theseletters are at the beginning of a word and the preceding wordends in -ν (most often the definite article). The -ν of thedefinite article might change to m or ng. For example, τόποtópο (place) but τóντόπο ton dópo (the place); κάβο kávo (cape) but τὸν κάβο tonggávo (the cape).d) The consonantal combinations μπ, ντ and γκ have thefollowing pronunciations:26

e) The vowels and vowel combinations η, ι, υ, ει and οι,which are all pronounced i, are pronounced as y in English“youth” when they are unaccented and immediately precedeanother vowel or vowel combination, e.g. μάτια mátya (eyes)or τέτοιος tétyos (such).3. There are some sounds and spellings that have noequivalents in English (though equivalents exist in otherlanguages), e.g. γ and χ. When they immediately precede afront vowel (i.e., η, ι, υ, ει, α, νι, ε, αι) γ is pronounced like yin English “youth” and χ is pronounced approximately likethe h in English “huge” (we will represent this sound as hy).For examples we have γελάει yelái (he laughs), γιατρός yatrόs(doctor), χεîλι hyíli (lip), χιόνι hyόni (snow).In all other positions, that is, before any other vowel or beforeanother consonant, the γ is pronounced like a Spanish -gbetween vowels, e.g. “la g o”; for example, γάλα ghála(milk), γλυκός ghlikόs (sweet). To produce this sound,pronounce like the English g in “get” but without completecontact between tongue and roof of the mouth. In similarenvironments the χ is pronounced like the Spanish j in “bajo”or German ch in “no ch.” Examples are χαρά khará (joy),27

χρήματα khrímata (money). To produce this sound, pronouncelike the English k but without complete contact betweentongue and roof of the mouth.4. There are some special combinations of letters which haveto be learned:ου οο in hoot, e.g. κουδούνι koodhoόni (bell)τς ts, e.g. τσάϊ tsái (tea)τζ dz, e.g. τζίτζικας dzídzikas (cicada)γγ ng, e.g. Φεγγάρι fengári (moon)Generally, double consonants are pronounced like singleconsonants; σσ, ττ, νν are pronounced s, t and n.AccentsWith very few exceptions every Modern Greek word has anaccent (either ‘or ) which indicates the stressed syllable, e.g.,ἂντρας ándras (man) or μπορ borό (I can). The differencebetween the two accents is one of spelling only; it reflects nodifference in sound. The accent is always written over thevowel of the stressed syllable. If the vowel of the stressedsyllable is spelled with a combination of vowel letters (i.e., ει,οι, αι, νι, αν or εν), the accent is placed on the second of thetwo vowel letters, e.g., κλείσιμο klísimo (conclusion) or θαμα tháνma (wonder, miracle).You should note two special restrictions: (1) the circumflexaccent ( ) can occur only on the last syllable or the28

next-to-the-last syllable, while the acute accent (’) can occuron any of the last three syllables (no syllable preceding thelast three can bear the stress), and (2) if a word normally hasthe acute accent on the last syllable and that word is followedby another word which bears stress on any syllable, the acuteaccent becomes a grave accent (’), e.g. τό (definite article) butτὸ δετρο (the tree). In some publications, however, the graveaccent is not used and the acute remains.In a very few words another symbol (:), the diaeresis, mayoccur over a vowel. This occurs when two vowels cometogether, but are not pronounced as a single sound. When thesecond of the separately pronounced vowels bears the stress,it is on that letter that this symbol is placed: σαΐτα sa-í-ta(arrow). If the first vowel of such a two-vowel combinationbears the stress, the placement of the accent on that firstvowel can indicate by itself that the vowels are to bepronounced separately. Thus τσάϊ tsá-i (tea) can also bespelled τσάι with no change in pronunciation.Breathing MarksAny word in Modern Greek beginning with a vowel orcombination of vowels has a mark for “smooth” or “rough”breathing, (’) or ( ), in addition to any accent that mightappear on that vowel, e.g., ἀπαντapandό (I answer) or ὣρα όra (hour). Neither is pronouncedbut they are necessary for correct Greek spelling.29

EncliticsEnclitics are words that never bear any stress marks, such ascertain of the personal pronouns in Modern Greek. When theyoccur after words in which the accent falls on the thirdsyllable from the end, an extra accent may be added to the lastsyllable of that word, e.g. τὸ παράθνρο to paráthiro (thewindow) but τὸ παράθυρό μον to paráthiό moo (my window).30

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WORD ORDERBasic word order in Modern Greek is the same as inEnglish—subject, verb, object:Ὁ Πέτρο ἦρθε.Peter has come.Ὁ καπετάνιος εἶδε τόν ΠέτροThe captainχτές.yesterday.sawPeterHowever, there are some major differences between ModernGreek and English word order:1. Word order is more flexible in Modern Greek than inEnglish:Ἦρθε ὁ Πέτρος.Peter has come.2. Object pronouns usually precede the verb:Ὁ καπετάνιος τὸν εἶδε χτές.[the captain him saw yesterday]The captain saw him yesterday.Σάς τὸ ἒδωσα χτές.[(to) you it (I) gave yesterday]32

I gave it to you yesterday.See the discussions on word order of pronouns in the sections“Use of Personal Pronouns” (p. 39) and “Word Order AfterImperatives (p. 68).3. Possessives follow the noun:Ὁyour friendίλος σας(See the sections “Cases,” p. 15, and “Possessive Pronouns,”p. 40, for further examples of possessives.)33

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HOW TO FORM QUESTIONSQuestions show no special word order but are distinguishedfrom statements by a rise in tone at the end of the sentence,just as may happen in English:Ὁ Πέτρος ἦρθεPeter has come.Ὁ Πέτρος ἦρθε;Has Peter come?Questions are punctuated in written Modern Greek with asemicolon.Interrogative WordsMany questions, in Modern Greek as in English, begin with aquestion word, which may be an adverb, adjective orpronoun. “When,” “who” and “how” are examples in English.In a Modern Greek question formed with such a word, theverb generally comes in second position. The most commonquestion words in Modern Greek are the following:35

These interrogative pronouns and adjectives are declined forcase, gender and number depending on their function in thesentence. The nature of declension in Modern Greek isexplained in the chapters on nouns, adjectives and pronouns.As pronouns, ποιός and πόσος are declined for case, genderand number depending on their function in the sentence. Asan adjective, ποιός agrees in case, number and gender withthe noun it modifies. The declension for ποιός as a pronounand adjective is given below. Note that the forms are identical36

for both except in the possessive and in the masculineobjective plural, where the pronoun has an extra syllable.(Pronoun forms are the second ones given in each instance.)On the rule for dropping -ν in the masculine and femininesingular objective, see “The Definite Article” (p. 16).The pronoun πόσος is declined like the adjective καλός, καλή,καλό (see p. 25), except that the accent is on the first syllable.37

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NEGATIONNegative sentences are formed by putting δέ (ν) or μή (ν)immediately before the verb of the sentence. The -ν remainsonly when the following word begins with a vowel or with κ,ξ, π, τ, τς or ψ.The negative δέ (ν) is used in indicative sentences and inquestions:Δὲ θέλω νὰ πάω. I don’t want to go.Δὲν ἦρθε;He didn’t come?The negative μή (ν) is used in the following situations:1. In negative commands:afraid!).2.Insubordinateclauses(Don’t beaftertheword(Heνά:didn’tcome because he had no money).3. Before present participles: μὴν ξέροντας (not knowing) orμὴθέλοντας (not willing).The words for “yes” and “no” are ναί and ὂχι. See p. 37 foradverbs used in negative sentences.39

CasesIn an English sentence a noun takes special endings in twosituations: to form a possessive (e.g. the child’s toy, thepresident’s message) or a plural (cars, churches, mountains).The general principle is similar in Modern Greek, though thenumber of situations demanding special endings issubstantially greater. Modern Greek distinguishes betweensingular and plural, and, within each of those categories,between subject, object and possessive. The latter threecategories are called cases.The subject of a sentence in Greek takes an ending to showthat it is in the subjective (or nominative) case:Ὀ υέο ς ἂ ντρα ς ἒχασε τὸ πορτοϕόλι του.[the young man lost the wallet his]The young man lost his wallet.The subjective singular is the form under which a noun isalways listed in dictionaries and grammar books. Adjectivesand pronouns are listed under the masculine subjectivesingular. These forms are referred to as dictionary forms.The direct object in Greek takes the ending of the objective(or accusative) case. The objective case is required in Greekfor objects of verbs and prepositions:40

The fisherman met the young man.ἀ πα τόν ἐ χθρόby the enemyThe possessive (or genitive) case is used to show possession:τὸ βιβλίο το δασκάλου[the book the teacher’s]the teacher’s bookNote that in Modern Greek the possrssor,(the teacher’s) in the above example, follows the thingpossessed.Another important use of the possessive case is for indirectobjects:[Nicholas to the teacher it gave]Nicholas gave it to the teacher.Direct AddressIn Modern Greek the objective case is usually used in directaddress:41

Πατέρα! Father!Mητέρα! Mother!However, for those masculine nouns which belong to a nounclass having -ο- as part of its subjective case ending, -ε- isused as the ending for direct address:Ἒμπορε! Merchant!Short personal names belonging to this class, on the otherhand, usually take regular objective endings:Πέτρο! Peter!Nίκο! Nick!GendersAll nouns in Modern Greek are either masculine, feminine orneuter. In general, nouns denoting male persons or animalsare masculine while nouns denoting female persons oranimals are feminine, but there are exceptions to this rule andyou must learn the gender of each Modern Greek noun as youlearn the noun itself, particularly since nouns denotinginanimate objects may belong to any of the three genders.42

Articles and adjectives are said to agree with the noun theymodify; that is, they change their form or take special endingsto show that they are in the same gender, case and number(singular or plural) as the noun. The best way to rememberthe gender of a noun is to memorize the appropriate definitearticle with it.The Definite ArticleCorresponding to the single English “the” we find thefollowing forms of the Modern Greek definite article:As with the final -ν of μήν and δέν (see p. 14), the v of themasculine and feminine objective singular usually remainsonly when the following word begins with a vowel (e.g. τὸνἂντρα, the man) or with a κ, ξ, π, τ, τσ or ψ (e.g. τόν τόπο, theplace). On a more formal level of Modern Greek, andespecially in formal written styles, the ν may be present nomatter what the following word begins with.43

When the definite article is τό,or τά and the followingword begins with a vowel, the definite article becomes τ’ andis written as part of the following word, e.g. τ’αὐτοκίνητο (thecar).The definite article is used in Modern Greek much as it is inEnglish, except that both abstract nouns and proper names aregenerally preceded by the appropriate definite article:ἠαλήθειαtruthὀ Xριστοϕόρος Mπουρμπούλη Christopher Bourbouliό κύριος MπουρμπούληMr. Bourbouliή ἈθήναAthensThe Indefinite ArticleLike the definite article, the indefinite article agrees in genderand case with the noun it precedes (but it occurs only in thesingular). The indefinite article is also the word for “one.”44

The -ν of the masculine and feminine objective case behavesin thesame fashion as that of the corresponding forms of thedefinite article, e.g. ἓναν ἂντρα (a man) but ἓνα διαιτητή (areferee).The indefinite article is used less frequently in Modern Greekthan it is in English. It is not used with nouns that follow apredicate such as “to be” and is often not used with a nounthat is the object of a verb:E μαι ψαρ ς. I’m a fisherman.Ἒχει σκυλί. He has a dog.To express an indefinite plural (i.e. “some”), use the adjectiveμερικός in the plural:μερικὰ παιδιάsome childrenμερικὲς μπάλλες some ballsSee καλός, καλή, καλό for the declension of this adjective (p.25).Noun GroupsModern Greek is characterized by a noun system with manydifferent patterns of case endings. These groupings (called45

declensions) may be described in terms of gender (masculine,feminine, neuter) as well as phonetic shape (the endings are in-oς, -ας, -ης, -η, -α, -o, -ι, etc.) .Feminine Nouns in -α and - ηMost feminine nouns in Modern Greek are declined likeμητέρα (mother) and κόρη (daughter):In these feminine nouns the subjective and objective forms ofthe singular are the same. The subjective and objective pluralsare also the same.Masculine and Neuter Nouns Whose Final Vowel Is oThe largest group of masculine and neuter nouns is illustratedby the masculine ἒμτορος (merchant) and the neuter νερό(water):46

In masculine nouns whose stress in the subjective singularfalls on the third syllable from the end, it is normal for thestress to move to the second syllable from the end in thepossessive singular and plural and in the objective plural.Among neuter nouns such a stress shift is unusual.Masculine Nouns in -ας and - ηςMasculine nouns in this group follow a different pattern frommasculine nouns in -ος, such as ἒμπορος (merchant). Thispattern may be illustrated by nouns such as ἂντρας (man) andράϕτης (tailor):47

In this group of masculine nouns, the objective and possessivesingular forms are identical (and the same as the subject formminus the -ς). The subjective and objective plural forms arealso identical.Neuters Ending in -ιVery similar to neuter nouns such as νερό (water) are neuterslike νησί (island) or χέρι (hand):48

You should note the end stress in both the singular and pluralpossessive. Some nouns of this group are spelled with -υrather than -ι, e.g., δάκρυ (tear), βράδυ (evening). These nounsshift their stress to the -υ- in the possessive singular andplural: δακρύου, δακρύων, βραδύου, βραδύων.Neuter Nouns in -οςThere is a small group of neuter nouns ending in -ος in thesingular of the subjective and objective, e.g. ἒθνος (people,nation) and ἒδαϕος (ground):Nouns with One More Syllable in the Plural Than in theSingularIn this noun group the final vowel of the singular is retainedin the plural and a -δ- (in the case of the neuters a -τ-) isinserted between it and the plural endings, forming an extrasyllable.49

Masculine nouns of this type are illustrated by ψαρ ς(fisherman) and καϕές (coffee):Some nouns that have unequal numbers of syllables insingular and plural do not preserve the final vowel of thesingular but show another, usually -α- or, more rarely, -η-:μαθητής (student), for example, has a plural μαθητάδες inaddition to a plural with the same number of syllables,μαθητές. Fortunately, such nouns are rare and will, in anycase, cause you no difficulty in recognition when you runacross them in speech or writing.Feminine nouns of this group are illustrated by μαϊμο(monkey):50

Neuter nouns that have one syllable more in the plural and inthe singular possessive than in the singular subjective andobjective end in -μα (more rarely in -μο) and have a plural in-ματα. As an example we can use the noun ὂνομα (name):Other Neuter NounsThere are a few neuter nouns that do not fall into any of thegroups we have so far discussed. They all have a subjective/objective singular in either -ς or -ν:51

Though few in number, these neuter nouns occur fairlyfrequently.Irregular NounsThere are both commonly and infrequently used nouns inModern Greek that do not conform to regular patterns and areformed according to somewhat eccentric rules. Therefore, themost effective, perhaps only, way to learn them is sheermemorization.1. Some nouns show irregularity in a change of genderbetween the singular and plural. Some nouns have twoplurals, one showing a change of gender and the other not. Insome cases, the two plurals have slightly different meanings.Some examples are:52

2. Some nouns have two plurals of the same gender but ofdifferent declensional patterns:3. A few nouns have two forms in the singular but only onekind of plural:4. Finally, there are some nouns that cannot be inflected at all(articles and adjectives used with these words are inflected).This class includes a number of originally foreign words and53

first names as well as many last names that were originallypossessive singular nouns:ὁ σοϕέρ (chauffeur)τὸτράμ (tram)τὸ Πάσχα (Easter)Ἀθανασίου (Athanasiou) (family name)Katharevusa NounsSome further irregularities arise because certain nouns appearin their Katharerusa guise even in writing or speech that isotherwise strictly Dhimotiki. Most such nouns are fairly rareor from a very learned vocabulary that you will probably nothave much occasion to use or even run across, but there are afew patterns that occur frequently enough that you should beable to recognize them. There are, for instance, two types ofKatharevusa feminine nouns that are noteworthy becausethey form large nu

Essential Modern Greek Grammar is a new work, first published by Dover Publications, Inc., in 1987. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Adams, Douglas Q Essential modern Greek grammar. Includes index. 1. Greek language, Modern—Grammar—1950–. 1. Title. PA1058.A3