Botany - WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding CourseBotanyBotany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus1
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course2Module # 9 – Component # 1Introduction to PlantsWhat is a Plant?All life on earth belongs to one of five kingdoms. Botany is the study of the PlantKingdom.A general definition of a plant:An organism that contains chlorophyll and isautotrophic (capable of making its own food ).This definition, however, does not incorporateplants such as fungi, some bacteria and parasiticplants which are heterotrophic (an organism thatdepends on organic matter already produced byother organisms for its nourishment).Plants are differentiated from animals in that theypossess cellulose cell walls and generally nonmotile (unmoving). Additionally, most plants tendto grow indefinitely while growth in animalsusually ceases at maturity.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course3Plant GroupingsPlants are broadly divided into those that possess true roots, stems and leavesand those that do not.Plants that do not possess trueroots, stems and leaves terised by the fact thattheir reproductive cells are notprotected by vegetative orsterile cells. The Thallophytesinclude bacteria, algae andfungi. Thallophytes are alsooccasionally known as LowerPlants.Thallophytes are described indetail in the next component ofthis Module.All remaining plants have reproductive cells that are protected by sterile cells andtrue roots, stems and leaves. A small group of these plants lack vascularconducting tissue - these are the liverworts and the mosses. All other plantshave a specialised conducting tissue and are known as vascular plants.Vascular plants are divided into non-seed-bearing plants such as ferns and themore advanced seed-bearing plants. The seed-bearing plants are divided intogymnosperms (naked seeds) and angiosperms (seeds protected within anovary). Angiosperms are further divided into monocotyledons anddicotyledons.The simplest plants are the bacteria and blue-green algae. These organismshave been put into their own kingdom – Kingdom Monera. These comprise agroup known as Procaryota, whose members have no distinct nucleus in theircells. All other plants are classed as Eucaryota.Bacteria is examined more closely in the next component: - Lower PlantsBotany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding CoursePlant MorphologyPlant morphology refers to the external structure of the plant.(Image source: biology.tutorvista.com)Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus4
5– Game Ranging / Field Guiding CourseStemsStems are elongated organs that form the axis onto which leaves and buds areattached. The place on the stem where leaves and buds are attached is called anode. The space between two nodes is called the internode. All stems, whethershort or long, horizontal or vertical, are characterised by the presence of nodesand internodes.Stems provide support for leaves and other appendages. They facilitatephotosynthesis by raising leaves towards the sun. Stems conduct water, minerals,food and hormones from roots to leaves and from one part of the stem to another.Stems produce new living tissue and store food and water.Stems may be modified to form:RhizomesCormsBulbsTuberStem spikesStolonsStem tendrilsa horizontal, underground stema vertical, short, thickened underground stemlike corms but possessing leafy scales in whichfood is storedenlarged ends of slender rhizomesmodified stems or outgrowths of stems.above-ground horizontal stemsslender modified stems that attach the plant toa ryGrapeStems provide us with, amongst other things, wood, paper, gum, tannin, latex(crude natural rubber is obtained from the latex of rubber-yielding species) andresins.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course6RootsThe root is that part of a plant which tends to grow downwards away fromlight and towards water. It bears neither leaves nor buds and usually ends in aspecial protective structure called the root cap. Behind the root cap, the outsidelayer of the root bears fine hairs called root hairs, which are the chief organs ofabsorption. The roots of a plant are collectively termed the root system.A tap root system consists ofone main root from which lateralroots radiate. Some desert plantshave a rapidly growing tap rootsystem which enables them toreach deep sources of water.A fibrous root system consistsof several main roots that branchto form a dense mass ofintermeshed lateral roots.Roots that develop from organsother than roots are calledadventitious roots. There aremany examples of adventitiousroots.Prop roots develop at the nodesof stems and function as roots.They also assist in providingsupport to the plant.Aerial prop roots are producedby many tropical trees likemangroves.In some instances, roots develop in clusters on stem internodes. These rootclusters form a flat adhesive pad against a structure.The two principal functions of roots are those of absorption and anchorage.Roots also perform the function of conduction and some roots act as foodstorage organs.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course7LeavesA typical dicotyledonous foliage leaf is composed of a blade and a petiole. Theshape of the apex, the margin and the base compose the overall shape of the leafblade. The apex of a leaf may be pointed or rounded. The margin may be entire,having no indentations whatsoever, or it may be toothed, scalloped, wavy or cutinto lobes. The base of the leaf may take on many forms including rounded, heartshaped and tapering.The petiole is that portion of the leaf that attaches the blade to the stem. If thepetiole is attached to the blade at the middle on the underside, the leaf is called apeltate leaf. If the petiole is absent and the blade is mounted directly onto thestem, the leaf is said to be sessile.Monocotyledonous leaves such as grasses do not have distinct petioles.Instead, the leaf is composed of a blade and a sheath. The sheath surrounds thestem. A small flap of tissue extends upward from the sheath and is called theligule.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course8There are two kinds of leaf blades: simple and compound. In a simple leaf theblade is all one unit whereas the blade of a compound leaf is composed of severalseparate leaflets. The difference between a leaf and a leaflet is that buds occur inthe axils of leaves but not in the axils of leaflets.When leaflets develop from the rachis (a continuation of the petiole) the leaf istermed pinnately compound. When the leaflets develop from one point at thetip of the petiole the leaf is said to be palmately compound.The arrangement of veins of a leaf is termed venation. There are two principaltypes of venation: parallel venation and net venation. In parallel venation,there are usually one or more large veins which run parallel to each other. In netvenation, there are one or more prominent veins from which smaller veins branchoff to join with other small veins. The type of venation exhibited by leaves is thebest indicator of whether it is a mono or dicotyledonous plant. Monocotyledonshave parallel venation, while dicot plants have net venation.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course9ThornsThorns are quite simply modified leaves. They have a similar internal structureand for some plants are still the site for photosynthesis. Thorns are anevolutionary adaptation of the plant as a means of protection from herbivores.Plants have only been halfway successful in this endeavour. Since thorns are anevolutionary ‘response’ due to animals, it is only reasonable that animalsthemselves should have shown a similar evolutionary ‘reaction’ to the plant’snew protectionism. Examining animal / plant interactions and associations todayreveal may examples of convergent or parallel evolution. Many browsers eatexclusively from thorn trees. The animals have adapted to these ‘thorny’ problems,and the plant has adapted to being occasionally eaten.Thorns show a wide variation in form, and mostly grow together with leaves ontrees. There are however, a large group of plants where thorns not only functionin protection from animals, but also from the climate. Desert dwelling cacti andother succulents only have thorns. Thorns reduce the amount of water being lostfrom these plants (transpiration) and regulate when their stomata (tiny holes forgas exchange) open and close.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course10Plant PhysiologyPhotosynthesis and RespirationThere are two chemical processes that occur in all true plants. These arephotosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthesis and Respiration are verycomplex processes. A brief description of both processes will suffice.During the process of photosynthesis light energy from the sun is convertedinto chemical energy.It is this chemical reaction that distinguishes plants most strongly fromanimals.Atmospheric carbon dioxide absorbed through the leaves, and water whichis taken up from the soil by the roots are used in the process. Carbohydratemolecules containing large amounts of energy are produced. Oxygen whichis the main source of atmospheric oxygen is given off. The photosyntheticreaction can be summarised by the following equation:6CO2 6H2O Light Energy C6H12O6 6O2Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis. Light energy is absorbed by thechief pigment (which accounts for the green colour of plants), chlorophyll,present in the chloroplasts and which drives the photosynthetic process.The rate of photosynthesis is influenced by internal factors - the structure of theleaf and its chlorophyll content. There is a decrease in the photosynthetic ratewhen the carbohydrate is manufactured more rapidly than is transferred from thecell. Finally, photosynthesis slows down when there is a water deficit in the cells.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course11External factors which influence the rate of photosynthesis are: temperature;light intensity; quality and duration of light; the availability of carbon dioxide;water supply; and the mineral content of the soil.Respiration is defined as the oxidation of organic substances within the cellsand the release of energy. A cell must be able to use the energy stored in foodproduced through the process of photosynthesis.Thus, a living cell breaks down the food and traps the energy in the form of theenergy-transport molecules called ATP and NADP. Food and oxygen are used andcarbon dioxide, water and energy are the end products.Respiration can be summed up by this simple equation which is the exact oppositeof the photosynthesis equation:C6 H12O2 6O2oxidation 6CO2 6H2O energyTo compare photosynthesis and respiration, here is a simplified table:PhotosynthesisRespirationCarbon dioxide and water are usedOxygen and food are usedFood (Carbohydrate) and oxygen are Carbon dioxide and water areproducedproducedEnergy from light is trappedEnergyfromfoodmaybetemporarily stored in ATP or lost asheat.Only chlorophyll-containing cells carry Everylivingcellcarriesoutout photosynthesisrespirationOccurs only in lightOccurs in light or darknessOccurs in osynthesis must exceed respiration for growth to occurFactors affecting the rate of respiration are the amount of water available,temperature, availability of stored food and the amount of gaseous oxygen.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course12Soil and MineralsSoil is the natural medium in which plants grow. Plants absorb water andminerals necessary for their development from the soil.Soils contain both mineral and organic matter. The organic matter of the soil isderived from plants and animals. Partially decomposed organic matter in soils iscalled humus. The mineral content comes from the continual weathering ofrock. The kind of rock and the degree of weathering determines the mineralcontent of the soil.Mineral elements are divided into macronutrient elements and micronutrientelements. The macronutrients, so called because they are needed in largequantities, are: nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium andcalcium. Micronutrients include iron, boron, manganese, copper, zinc, chlorine andmolybdenum.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course13Plant ResponsesAll plant cells respond to environmental changes.Phototropism is the growth ofthe plant in response to a lightsource.Geotropism is the plant’s growthin response to gravity. Rootsdemonstrate positive geotropismby growing downwards, whereasshoots show negative geotropismby growing away from the force.Chemotropism is the response toa chemical stimulus. Motile algaeand bacteria move in response tochemicals.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course14Photoperiodismisthe response of plantsto changing day andnight length. Suchresponsesincludeplantandseeddormancy and leafabscission (sheddingof leaves).Thigmotropismdescribes a plant’sresponse to contact.Tendrils and twiningstemsofclimbingplants are promptedtocurlaroundsupports which touchthem. The leaves ofvery sensitive plantsnormally collapse iftouched.Thisresponse may also beknownasThigmonasty.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course15TanninOne further plant response that baresmentioning is based on recent scientificwork in this interesting field. Thisresponse concerns a plant chemical knowas tannin. This is a toxic chemical thatalso makes plant leaves unpalatable.It has been found that in certain speciesof Acacia that when an animal beginsfeeding on the tree, the tree respondsby producing tannins in their leaves.This makes them taste bad and causesthe animal to move to a different part ofthe tree or to a new tree completely.Therefore, animals don’t spend all theirtime on one tree, but move frequentlybetweentrees.Thisdefensiveresponse aids in the tree not beingseverely defoliated in a short space oftime. This has been known for some time.However, in a study conducted in the early1990’s it was found that in addition to thetrees producing tannins when they areeaten, they also produce and release asecondary chemical into the air that istaken up by surrounding trees. These trees in turn begin tannin productionbefore any feeding on them takes place.This topic and related issues are fully described in our Wildlife ManagementCourse.Plants can also be classified according to their water needs.Xerophytes are those plants able to live in very dry placesHydrophytes are plants which live in water or very wet soilMesophytes thrive on a moderate water supplyHalophytes have evolved to live in very salty soils.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course16Plant ReproductionMany plants have both sexual and asexual means of reproduction.Some, such as bacteria and blue-green algae, demonstrate asexual reproductiononly. It may be simple as is the case of bacteria. A bacterial cell simply divides toproduce two - a procedure known as fission.When fragments of filamentous algae separate and become individuals, they aresaid to arise by fragmentation. Another form of asexual reproduction issporulation, the formation of spores. The protoplasm undergoes division and theseparate small masses of protoplasm become spores. In this case the spores giverise to new plants.As you will have ascertained, as plants evolved they developed more complexmechanisms of reproduction as their own forms became more varied andcomplex. Some biologists have described plants as living fossils since manyspecies have changed little if it all over billions of years. Today they now grow sideby side with other members of their Kingdom that only evolved millions of yearslater. Unlike the Animal Kingdom, this gives natural scientists the opportunity tocompare these species side by side.As a method of reproducing, sexual reproduction is a much younger method.Through three examples we will be able to show the progression ofreproduction as plants evolved.Sexual reproduction involves the formation of sperm cells and eggs which fuse.This occurs in a variety of ways. Firstly, we will study a non – seed bearingplant.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course17FernsFerns probably evolved around 430 million years ago, and within 70 million yearsbecame the dominant plant form. They evolved a variety of sexual reproduction,but in a primitive form.In this specific scenario spores are produced in special structures calledsporangia which usually develop on the underside of the leaf. At maturity,each sporangium releases its spores. This is called sporulationEach spore develops into a heart-shaped gametophyte anchored to the soilby rhizoids. Multicellular sex organs develop on the under surface of thegametophyte.The sex organ in which sperm cells develop is called the antheridium and theorgan in which the egg develops is called the archegonium. The sperm swimsto reach the egg and fuses with it. The now fertilised egg gives rise to a newfern plant. The gametophyte shrivels and disappears.Seed - bearing plants you will recall are divided into gymnosperms andangiosperms.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course18PinesPine trees are the quintessential gymnosperms. They are also commonlyknown as conifers – a reference to their reproductive structures. Many of thelarge Northern Hemisphere trees are conifers and include among 546 otherspecies, Redwoods, cedars, Giant sequoias and fir trees. This group of trees is alsomainly responsible for our lumber and paper.Conifers have their reproductive parts located in cones that are a typicalmorphological feature of these trees. Generally, each tree will have “male” conesand” female” cones. Through a process of maturing, the male cones produce malegametophytes which are released from the male cone and enter the female cone.Here the female gametophytes have matured and through a highly complexseries of mechanisms, mature seeds are produced. The seeds are released fromthe cone, disperse on the wind, settle in suitable habitats and germinate into newsaplings.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course19Angiosperm ReproductionAngiosperms are the most recent evolved of plants and therefore the mostcomplex and consequently have the most complicated modes of reproduction.Firstly, we must remember that angiosperms are divided up into themonocotyledons and dicotyledons. The Monocotyledons or ‘monocots’ includeamong other groups, all the grasses (maize, rice, wheat, barley, sugar cane,bamboo, lawn grass and - 10 000 other species).The grasses are examined in the next component of this module, so please see itfor more information on their reproduction.The ‘dicots’ are probably the most special of all plant groups to most non-scientists,as they contain almost all the flowers. The need for this very large group ( 235000 species) to have evolved flowers will become clear soon.The reproductive parts of angiosperms are to be found inside flowers – althoughthis is only part of the reason for their existence. The male parts are calledstamens and consist of a pollen encrusted anther and stalk-like filament.Usually several stamens surround one central carpel (female parts) consisting ofan ovary, style (stalk) and stigma (opening). Genetic material is carried inpollen for the male portion and in the ovaries for the female.Unlike in monocotyledons, pollen in dicots does not rely on the wind forpollination but rather needs a pollinator, usually in animal form. The mostcommon are obviously insects, but birds and even certain mammals are reliedupon to carry pollen for these plants. This is the main reason for the widediversity of flowers. They are needed to attract the correct pollinator or pollenvector.Some flowers are designed in such a way as to attract a variety of vectors,while others are specialised and will only allow specific vectors to take pollenfrom them.The specialised bills of Sunbirds and Hummingbirds, for example are adaptedfor certain flowers only. The bird can only get nectar from these flowers andthus the flower will only allow pollen to attach to that specific bird.The Baobab tree can only be pollinated by one species of bat. In this scenario,each species relies directly on the other for its survival. If all the bats die, thetree cannot propagate itself. This is also an example of co-evolution betweentwo completely different species.Another example is the Coco d’ Mur, which has evolved a rotten flesh odourspecifically to attract certain species of fly.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
– Game Ranging / Field Guiding Course20These examples have highlighted the main function of flowers – to attract thecorrect vector. This is the reason for their bright and varied colouration andforms. This has led scientists to conclude that insects and birds can indeed seecolour. Nectar incidentally, the most common attractant of vector to flowers, issimply a form of sugared water.The transfer of the pollen from one flower to another is a relatively simpleprocedure. The vector usually just makes contact with the flower and in doing sogets pollen stuck to its body. Pollen is not actually sticky in the sense of glue, butrather is very spiky at the microscopic level. The pollen literally hooks in thevector, whether on its fur, feathers, leg hair or clothing. The vector then visits asecond flower of the same species, and though contact with the second flowerdeposits pollen from the first.The pollen lands onto the stigma, travels down a pollen tube and into the ovary.The pollen fertilises an egg, which develops into a seed. The ovary once filled withfertilised eggs develops into another form, a fruit or vegetable which arecommon examples. The seed will be dispersed when the fruit or other structurebecomes detached from the plant.Co-incidentally, angiosperms began to evolve 120 million years ago, and werethe dominant plant form (as they continue to be today), from 65 million yearsago – the beginning of the rise of the mammals.Botany CopyrightThis course material is the copyrighted intellectual property of WildlifeCampus. It may not be copied,distributed or reproduced in any format whatsoever without the express written permission of WildlifeCampus
mangroves. In some instances, roots develop in clusters on stem internodes. These root clusters form a flat adhesive pad against a structure. The two principal functions of roots are those of absorption and anchorage. Roots also perform the function
Biological Sciences OSU BI 201 General Botany BOT 1404 Biological Sciences OSU-OKC BI 201 General Botany BIOL 1404 1 Biological Sciences OSUIT-OKM BI 201 General Botany BIOL 1404 Biological Sciences OU BI 201 General Botany PBIO 1114 5 Biological Sciences RCC BI 201 General Botany BOT 1114 1 Biological Sciences RSC BI 201 General Botany BIOL 1215 1
Botany for degree students. Bryophytes 8th ed. S. Chand and Co. Ltd. Delhi. Schofield, W.B. 1985. Introduction to Bryology. Macmillan Publishing Co. London. Hussain, F. and I. Ilahi. 2004. A text book of Botany. Department of Botany, University of Peshawar. Journals / Periodicals: Pakistan Journal of Botany, International Journal of Phycology and Phycochemsitry, Bryology, Phycology. Title of .
I Introduction to Botany Introduction to Botany, its branches and scope. A brief history of Botany. Botany in Ancient India. Contributions of Indian Botanists – J. C. Bose, BirbalSahni, P. Maheshwari, B.G.L. Swamy, E. K. JanakiAmmal and M. S. Swaminathan. A brief study of historical developments of Kingdom system of classification.
Optional :- Botany o IFS Botany solved papers by Mamata Singh Paper I 1. Botany for Degree Students by A C Dutta 2. The Embryology of Angiosperms by Bhojwani and Bhatnagar 3. A textbook of Botany, vol- I,II & III --- Pandey and Trivedi / A textbook of Botany by Singh, Pandey and Jain 4. Textbook of Bacteria Fungi & Viruses by H.C. Dubey 5.
BOTANY Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) Theory Syllabus Effective from June 2018 . A Text Book of Botany Vol. 1 & 2. S.N. Pandey, P.S. Trivedi and Mishra., Vikas Publication House Pvt. Ltd. Botany for degree students, Algae, Botany for degree students Fungi, Padey,
2. Vasishtha, B.R. 1974 Botany for Degree students Vol I Algae 3. Vasishtha, B.R. 1974 Botany for Degree students Vol III Bryophya 4. Vasishtha, P.C. 1974 Botany for Degree students Vol IV Pteridophyta 5. Vasishtha, P.C. 1976 Botany for Degree students Vol V Gymnosperms 6. Bhatnagar, S.P.
departments that award degrees in botany, with the caveat that some institutions that had removed Botany from the name of their department could retain a botany degree. Even in 2004, with a few exceptions, only Research Universities had Botany departments. Of those surveyed in 2004, 41%
ECONOMIC BOTANY Vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 1-108 Spring 2007 Economic Botany Vol. 61 No. 1 Spring 2007 Devoted to Past, Present, and Future Uses of Plants by People Published for The Society for Economic Botany by The New York Botanical Garden Press Issued 30 March 2007
