Evangelical Christianity And Romanticism
Evangelical Christianityand RomanticismD.W. BebbingtonDr. Bebbington is Senior Lecturer in History at the University ofStirling, Scotland. This article is the secondin a series ofthree entitled 'Evangelical Christianity and Western Culture Since the Eighteenth Century' andwas presented by the author in the Staley Lectures at Regent College in April1989. (The first lecture in theseries was published in the December 1989 issue ofCrux.) The lectures were based on research for his bookEvangelicalism in Modem Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (Unwin Hyman, 1989).he ftrst of the articles in this series dealtwith the relationship between EvangelicalChristianity and the Enlightenment. Evangelical Christianity was defmed in terms of foursalient characteristics: conversionism; activism;biblicism; and crucicentricity. It was argued thatEvangelical Christianity was started by the impinging of the Enlightenment on the Protestant traditionand that in the eighteenth century and on into thenineteenth much Evangelical religion displayedEnlightenment characteristics. There was thereforean alignment with the progressive thought of theeighteenth century.We can now turn our attention to Romanticism,to the new cultural mood which supplanted theEnlightenment at the very end of the eighteenthcentury and in the early years of the nineteenth.Perhaps Romanticism is best known in the Englishspeaking world through the Lake Poets, especiallyWilliam Words worth andS.T. Coleridge. The moodthat is the subject of this article, however, extendedbeyond the generation of poets who flourished at thebeginning of the nineteenth century long into thatcentury and indeed on into the twentieth. TheRomantic phenomenon was the incoming culturalwave of the nineteenth century.What, then, were the features of Romanticism?Essentially it replaced the Enlightenment's stress onreason with a new stress on will and emotion. Morespecifically, in the area of metaphysics there was agreater awareness of the spiritual. According to aliterary critic of the early twentieth century, T.E.Hulme, Romanticism was "spilt religion."' A senseof the divine ran out from religious institutions toconsecrate the world of nature and history. ThereTwas a feeling in the Romantics for the numinous, inmountains and seas, in dramatic panoramas. Theartist John Martin, for instance, depicted vast sceneswith rocky crags, precipitous drops and tiny humanbeings perched on the edge. A sense of awe wascreated by the painters and the writers alike. Thesimplicity that marked Enlightenment poetics wasvery much out of vogue. Metaphysical systematizers were in favour, the greatest being Hegel with hisgreat vista of world history. In Hegel and in manyother thinkers of the era there were distinct signs ofpantheism. The world was charged with the spiritual.In the area of epistemology there was changealso. Knowledge was now held not to be the resultof passive experience but to be the fruit of creativeactivity by the mind. Reality was primarily mental.This is the tradition of idealism that stemmed fromImmanuel Kant in Germany. It was to impingeincreasingly on Anglo-Saxon thought as the nineteenth century wore on. Knowledge was oftenthought in the Romantic age to be the result ofintuition, a perception outside the categories of science. Thus, for example, the great music of the agewas felt to be the result of spontaneous apprehension. There was a cult of the genius. The music ofBerlioz, of Schumann and ofVerdi in different waystestiftes to the spirit of the age. Many of the musicaltrends culminated in Wagner. The music of theperiod illustrates the surges of feeling which werecharacteristic of the new cultural mood.There was a further major emphasis, on history.There was a fundamental movement of thoughtassociated with Romantic sensibility which hassometimes been called "historicism." The idealCrux: March 1990Nol. XXVI, No.19
Evangelical Christianity and Romanticismform of society was located not in the future (as it hadbeen by the Enlightenment's idea of progress), butrather in the past. The past was felt to be a time whenaffairs were much better than in the present. Furthermore, according to historicists, groups of humanbeings create their own values over time. There istherefore no permanent set of values which hasabsolute intrinsic worth. Thus historicism created asense of tradition, of the importance of inheritedwisdom, of the significance of the customary. Thehistorical emphasis is clearly exemplified in thenovels of Sir W alter Scott with their colour, theirawareness of the distinctiveness of past ages andtheir folk spirit. This folk spirit, a dimension of thehistoricism of the period, undoubtedly gave animpulse to the nationalism which is one of the mostsignificant creations of nineteenth-century thought.Nationalism was the driving force behind many ofthe political developments of the age. So in metaphysics, epistemology and history there were significant breaks with the past.The consequence was a different understandingofhumanity. Whereas the Enlightenment had tendedto see human beings as machines on the model ofNewtonian science, Romanticism saw them as organisms, as part of the growing world of nature. Afavourite Romantic metaphor for man was a tree.Biology rather than physics supplied the imagery.Human beings, furthermore, were typically treatedas members of communities. Trees, after all, growin the soil of a particular land. The notion oforganism led on to a sense of group solidarity.Perhaps the greatest representative in Germany ofnearly all these trends was Goethe. His naturemysticism of colour and substance was near theheart of the new ways of thinking. All the movements of opinion can be summed up as Romanticism. The Romantic tone gradually made inroadsduring the nineteenth century into different fields into wallpaper design as much as poetry, challenging Enlightenment norms and usually winning thevictory.It is well known that this way of thinking affectedthe churches. It transformed the style of RomanCatholicism during the nineteenth century. Ultramontanism, the movement exalting the role of thepapacy within the Catholic Church, was very muchon its cultural side an expression of Romanticism.The deliberate adoption outside Italy of the customsof Rome bears all the hallmarks of the Romantic.There was a revival of pomp and colour, of Marian10vespers and the confessional. All this was an expression of Romantic taste impinging on organized religion. In the Church of England it is generallyaccepted that the Oxford Movement of the 1830srepresented to a large extent the impact of Romanticthought. John Henry Newman' s style is quintessentially Romantic. Ritualism, which extended thelegacy of Oxford movement by imitating RomanCatholic developments in the liturgy within theChurch of England, was likewise Romantic in inspiration. And certain aspects ofBroad Church thoughtwithin the Church of England, especially the theology of F.D. Maurice, professor at King's College,London, were deeply influenced by Coleridge andhis circle and so bore the stamp of the Romantic.What is less appreciated is that Romanticismaffected Evangelicals too. Evangelical assumptions, as we have seen, had been integrated with theEnlightenment worldview. But during the course ofthe nineteenth century, in different fields at differentstages, Evangelicalism came to terms in many wayswith Romantic thought. It is that process that isconcentrated on here- the ways in which Evangelicalism was modified by the Romantic influences.central figure was Edward Irving. Born in1792, Irving became a minister of the Churchof Scotland as a protege of the leading Evangelical Thomas Chalmers. In 1822 he went toLondon to serve largely a Scottish congregation. Hewas a striking figure: he stood 6'2" tall, possessed avery strong voice and had a squint which added to hispulpit power. His hair was parted to right and left inaffected disorder in the manner of a Romantic genius. According to a great friend, Thomas Carlyle, thegreatest Romantic writer of that generation, Irving'sdesire to be loved motivated a great deal that he did.His preaching swept London by storm. He wasmentioned in the House of Commons, carriagesbrought members of the peerage to his church and hebecame the talkofthe town. Why? Because his stylewas Romantic. He appealed to the elite who admiredthe Lake poets. In idiom and content he was veryColeridgean. He was, in fact, a close friend ofColeridge. He regularly visited Coleridge' s house inHampstead and was deeply swayed by the poet'sway of thinking. As Irving put it in addressingColeridge, "You have been more profitable . to myspiritual understanding of the Word of God . thanany or all of the men with whom I have entertainedfriendship.''2 It is not surprising that Irving readACrux: March 1990Nol. XXVI, No.1
Evangelical Christianity and RomanticismScripture through Romantic spectacles. And thatproduced many fresh interpretations. Aspects of theBible that perhaps had lain dormant in previousgenerations sprang to life.Most strikingly, Irving discerned the secondadvent as a major category that had been neglected.In 1827 he published a translation of a strange workby a Chilean Jesuit entitled The Coming ofMessiahin Glory and Majesty. Evangelicals in general in theprevious generation had supposed that the secondcoming was not a literal event. Thomas Scott, anEvangelical Anglican leader, actually said in 1802that there would be no visible appearance of Christon earth. 3 Irving insisted on the contrary that Christwould indeed return in person. A strong convictionof the imminence of the second coming was themajor theme of the Albury Conferences held inSurrey in the late 1820s and became the subject ofmany other prophetic conferences as the centuryadvanced.The adventism of this movement took a particular form. Those who attended the Albury Conferences decided that postmillennialism, a commonbelief among eighteenth-century Evangelicals, wasmistaken. The widespread view had been that thesecond coming would take place after the millennium. There would be gradual progress from thepresent age into the good things to come. Irving andhis successors by contrast, were premillennalists,holding that the second coming would take placebefore the millennium, and be associated with judgements on the present wicked age. Belief in thepersonal advent in premillennial form had existedbefore. It was common in the seventeenth century.But it was revived in Irving's circle because of hisRomantic sensibility. The second coming of JesusChrist was of a piece with the dramatic personalintervention of a hero in the affairs of the nation asseen in many a Romantic poet. Because of thatsensibility, Irving became aware of something in theBible that others had not recently seen. Followingadventism there was a gradual rise of other attitudeswhich can be identified as similar to the Romanticspirit of the age. As the nineteenth century wore on,more and more Romantic characteristics began tomark Evangelical Christians.Several can be listed. First there was poetic sensibility. There was a stress on feeling at many levels.Preachers became keen on Romantic authors. DavidThomas, a Congregational minister at Bristol in themid-nineteenth century is a good example. "Hisfeeling for Wordsworth," it was said, "amountedalmost to a passion."4 A copy of W ordsworth wasalways on his desk and when h,e was unwell the bestmedicine was Wordsworth. Needless to say he tookhis holidays in the Lake District and he would pointout spots connected with Wordsworth to his longsuffering wife. The qualities of the poets inevitablycoloured the preaching of ministers such as Thomas.They frequently concentrated, for example, on elude. An allied motif is evident in the music thatbecame popular amongst Evangelicals later in thenineteenth century. The Sacred Songs and Solos ofIra D. Sankey, the companion of the evangelistDwight L. Moody, have much in their tone which isRomantic. Sankey' s songs were immensely popularfrom the 1870s throughout the Evangelical world.The explanation was given by R. W. Dale, an EnglishCongregational contemporary. "People want to sing,"he wrote, "not what they think, but what they feel." 5Sankey was catering for a growing Romantic taste ata popular level at the end of the century.Secondly, the supernatural dimension was magnified. There was a craving for immediate contactwith the divine in everyday life. The Romantic ethoshas been called by a major literary critic "NaturalSupernaturalism."6 It conditioned the policies ofIrving. He criticized bodies such as the British andForeign Bible Society for using ordinary businessmethods for the purposes of the kingdom of God.The society was pursuing a rational Enlightenmenttechnique, but it is not surprising that a Romanticshould regard this approach with contempt as debasing the spiritual. Business methods, according toIrving, contaminated Christian work, which shouldemploy distinctive godly ways. Committee meetings, for example, should begin with prayer. Likewise, according to Irving, there must be a newdeparture in missionary methods. He repudiatedmuch of what William Carey had called "means."Instead of the elaborate structure of home supportwith committees, bankers and subscribers, Irvingurged that there should be no such help at all.Missionaries should go out as men of faith, like theearliest apostles, trusting God to provide for all theirneeds without any preliminary arrangements. Herewas the birth of the faith mission principle which hasgrown so widespread in the twentieth century.Hudson Taylor, founder of the China Inland Mission, well illustrates the attitude of the fresh missionary tradition. On a voyage to China, Hudson TaylorCrux: March 1990Nol. XXVI, No. 111
Evangelical Christianity and Romanticismgave away his life-belt quite deliberately to showthat his trust was in God alone. The faith principlewas adopted by the newer missionary societies established in the wake of the China Inland Mission. Inits origins it was a Romantic attitude springing froma new reading of scriptural passages by Irving andhis generation.Thirdly, there was a sense of history. Evangelicals became more aware of the past. Irving cultivated in the pulpit what was called the "Miltonic orOld-English Puritan style" of declamation.7 Headopted a theological stance that he called Calvinism. He stressed the sovereignty of God, but hisversion of Calvinism was not based on close study ofsixteenth- or seventeenth-century teaching. Hebelieved, for example, that God is so powerful thatthe atonement must have been intended for all, notjust the elect. That is a subversion of much Calvinistic teaching of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Nevertheless he saw himself as a Calvinist,believing in the omnipotence of God in a very strongsense. Historiography at times seems similarlycavalier. Merle D' Aubigne's History of the Reformation, an immensely popular text, has very littleconcern with accurate portrayals. Rather its purposeis to evoke the atmosphere of past times, to depict theheroic rediscovery of pure doctrine in the midst ofpopish decadence. The growth of anti-Catholicismamongst Evangelicals from the 1830s was not simply a consequence of social developments. A largenumber of Catholic Irish, it is true, came into areaswhere traditionally Protestantism had been dominant. Nevertheless there was also a sense of ideological struggle inherited from the past, light versusdarkness, Protestant truth versus Roman error. Thatwas no more than an expression of the historicalconsciousness that marked the nineteenth century asa whole.Fourthly, there was a corporate emphasis. Society came to the fore rather than the individual. Theemergence of "holism," as it is sometimes called,was a break from the Enlightenment's legacy ofindividualism in which each human being was seenas a separate unit. Society had been conceived byEnlightenment thinkers as no more than an assemblage of units. To Romantics, by contrast, theindividual was rooted in a particular community,and therefore community was prior to the individual.There were implications for Evangelicals in theirtheory of the church. They stressed the communityof Christians, the doctrine of the church, and related12questions of ecclesiology, much more than Enlightenment thinkers. Evangelical sympathies were verymarked for the Oxford Movement in its early phases.J.H. Newman knew he had substantial Evangelicalsupport for his campaign to restore dignity to theChurch of England right up until 1838, when sections of the movement began to adopt a pro-RomanCatholic course. In the later nineteenth centurymany clergy in the Church of England, starting asEvangelicals, eventually by nearly imperceptiblesteps became High Churchmen. The spirit of the ageelevated theirchurchmanship almost unconsciously.Irving founded a separate Catholic Apostolic Church.It observed an elaborate ritual and upheld the doctrine of the real presence. Irving was certainly anEvangelical, but the church that he created had acomplex structure with twelve apostles, and a diverse hierarchy in each congregation. The Christiancommunity was to be properly ordered. The sameelement, a conviction of the importance of the corporate expression of the faith, was evident in the originsof the Brethren in the same decade of the 1830s. TheBrethren, generally called the "Plymouth Brethren,"emphasized the purity of the church and urged peopleto leave their existing denominations to gather to thename of the Lord only. Loyalty to Jesus Christ, theyheld,demandednewChristian assemblies. Corporatism, then, was a mark of the age that steadily madeprogress among Evangelicals.Fifthly, there was the field of aesthetics. Attention for the beautiful was a Romantic preoccupationwhich certainly affected the churches. Commonly itwas a concern with nature. Flowers were verypopular. In the first half of the nineteenth century noEvangelical congregation of any type would havehad floral decoration in its place of worship. Indeedflowers were explicitly denounced as a feature ofheathen religion. Gradually during the second halfof the century they were introduced into more andmore churches, and in the end Evangelical congregations succumbed. That was a symptom of the spreadofRomantic sensibility. A taste for choral music wasparallel. Robed church choirs became widespread inthe Episcopal tradition, although they were not restricted to the Episcopal tradition. Again the noveltyfitted Romantic taste. Equally pulpit style altered. Itbecame more florid and rhetorical. As an illustration, here is a paraphrase- admittedly satirical- ofthe Twenty-Third Psalm as it might have been givenby R. Winter Hamilton, a Leeds Congregationalminister of the 1840s:Crux: March 1990Nol. XXVI, No. 1
Evangelical Christianity and RomanticismDeity is my Pastor; I shall not be indigent. Hemaketh me to recumb on the verdant lawns; Heleadeth me beside the unrippled liquidities; He reinstalleth my spirits, andconducteth me in the avenuesof rectitude, for the celebrity of His appellations.Unquestionably, though I perambulate the glen ofthe umbrages of the sepulchral dormitories, I willnot be perturbed by appalling catastrophes; for Thouart present; Thy word and Thy crook insinuatedelectations. Thou spreadest a refection before mein the midst of inimical scrutations; Thou perfumestmy locks with odiferous unguents, my chalice exuberates. Indubitably benignity and commiserationshall continue all the diutumity of my vitality, and Iwill eternalize my habitance in the metropolis ofNature. 8The idiom of preaching was transformed. And it wastransformed because of the taste of the times.Sixthly, the politics of Evangelicals were affected. There was a reformist impulse in the movement during the Enlightenment era, but amongstthose touched by Romanticism it became much lessmarked. The chief ideological reason for the changewas undoubtedly premillennialism. The rising schoolof eschatology offered little hope for the improvement of the world. Judgement alone was to beexpected before the imminent second coming. Hence,Evangelicals tended to be more conservative, moreconcerned to shore up the existing order than toreform it. Groen Van Prinsterer, a leading DutchEvangelical prominent in the Orange Party, forinstance, wroteatextcalledUnbeliefandRevolutionin which he traced the French Revolution to theirreligion of the eighteenth century. He argued thatwhat Christians ofEvangelical conviction should doin the nineteenth century was to resist revolutionaryimpulses. In many countries religion of an Evangelical colouring became a sanction for the politics ofestablishment. It became strongly associated withnationalism, as it did in the British Conservatism ofthe 1840s. The trend to the right was not uniform. InEngland, Evangelicals of the Nonconformistchurches remained more Liberal in political tone,just as they remained more conditioned by the Enlightenment. Nevertheless there was undoubtedly aswing in the balance of Evangelical politics in thenineteenth century against reform and in favour ofsupporting the established order. Romanticismencouraged political pessimism, and that is a cons er-vative force.The six factors that have been reviewed illustratethat Romantic characteristics strongly markedEvangelicalism. What were their consequences forthe development of the Evangelical movement? TheimpactofRomanticism was ambiguous, for its influence pointed in two opposite theological directions.One trend was conservative; the other was liberal.The conservative trend can be considered first.Various aspects can be discerned. Once more premillennialismplayed its part. Its growth during thenineteenth century was especially evident amongstAnglican Evangelicals. One version that was particularly influential was dispensationalism. Goingback toJ ohn Nelson Darby, an early Brethren leader,this school of opinion held that history consists ofcontrasting dispensations in which God deals ondifferent principles with his people. Dispensationalism undoubtedly swayed Evangelicals in a conservative direction, leading, for example, to a repudiation of the social gospel. Its spread was one of themajor ways in which a force Romantic in its provenance stiffened theological conservatism.A second area was the reinforcement of biblicalinerrancy. The modern form of belief in the inerrancy of Scripture was an innovation of this period.The conviction newly adopted in the early nineteenth century was that it is possible to deduce thequality of inerrancy in Scripture from God's truthfulness. The formal argument goes as follows. Godcannot lie; God speaks his word in the Bible; therefore the Bible contains no error. That deductivemethod was an approach common amongst Romantics. It was not the way that the Enlightenmenttheorists had approached the Bible. The Enlightenment had characteristically used not a deductivemethod, but an inductive method. Evangelicals ofthe eighteenth century were eager to affmn the truthof Scripture, yet were also happy to admit that minordiscrepancies in the text might be found by investigation. Inerrancy was not part of their worldview.There was an illuminating incident in the career ofHenry Martyn, the pioneer missionary to the East. Inmodem-day Iran he was questioned by a Persianscholar on whether the New Testament was spokenby God. The Muslim scholar believed the Koran tohave that status. Martyn' s reply is most instructive."The sense from God," he said, "but the expressionfrom the different writers of it.''9 Henry Martyn, thatis to say, did not believe in verbal inspiration. Theview that Henry Martyn upheld was the attitude ofCrux: March 1990Nol. XXVI, No. 113
Evangelical Christianity and Romanticismthe Enlightenment. By the mid-nineteenth century,a much firmer attitude to the Bible was coming intovogue amongst Evangelicals. Its origins can betraced to Robert Haldane, a Scottish Evangelical,who found at Geneva in 1816 a diffuse Germanicview of inspiration. It was held there that Scriptureis no more inspired than any poem. In reaction Ha1dane asserted a doctrine of absolute verbal inspiration in which every word of the original text ofScripture was held to be equally inspired. Thatattitude was to spread through the journal The Record to most Evangelical Anglicans. Thus BishopJ.C. Ryle in the later nineteenth century could declare, "I feel no hesitation in avowing that I believein the plenary inspiration of every word of theoriginal text of Holy Scripture." 10 It is thereforeuntrue to suppose - as it is commonly supposedthat a traditional strong view of the Bible was brokendown in the late nineteenth century by higher criticism. A more accurate perspective on attitudes tothe Bible amongst Evangelicals in the nineteenthcentury is that a stronger view of the Bible developedovertime. In particular, a higher view of inspirationgrew up which was Romantic in style. It had theeffect of reinforcing theologica1 conservatism.Thirdly, there was the higher life movement.From the 1860s a holiness movement developedwithin Evangelicalism. It taught that sanctificationis available by faith, not by works. It was stronglyindebted to John Wesley, who had taught that perfection is possible before death. Many Methodistsupheld this teaching, but the holiness tradition received a new twist from the 1860s. It began to betaught that holiness comes not after a long struggle,which was Wesley's view, but immediately in response to a seeking faith. This constituted a rejection of Enlightenment gradualism. The immediatism of the new school was typical of Romanticthought. In America holiness churches split off fromMethodism. The popularity of the new doctrineensured that they soon formed a strong sector withinEvangelicalism. There were some remarkable developments. The Fire-Baptized Holiness Association of south-eastern Kansas, for example, held inthe 1890s that beyond the second blessing the believer should progress through baptisms of fire,dynamite, lyddite, and oxidite. In Britain a muchmilder form of holiness teaching was institutiona1ized at the Keswick Convention from 1875. It wasa focus of the conservative Evangelical movementin Britain and the whole English-speaking world in14the first ha1f of the twentieth century. It was the lastof three major factors, all stemming from the Romantic impulse, that made for conservatism.On the other hand, there was a liberalizing trendwhich can also be traced to the Romantic movement.In the early nineteenth century Romanticism affected central doctrines. Its influence was felt mostof all in Germany, the heartland of the Romanticmood. It did not cause specific denia1s of inheritedChristian doctrines. Rather it created a preferencefor vaguer statements of belief. An aversion todogma became genera1. At first the fashion forbroader theology, often ca11 "Neologism," was treatedin much of the English-speaking world as somethingto be shunned at all costs. Not only Evangelica1swere a1armed by it. E.B. Pusey, one of the leadingdivines of the Oxford Movement, detested it as asolvent of the structure of Christian thought. Gradually, however, this erosion of the sharp edges ofChristian teaching was accepted by a number ofpeople in the English-speaking world, especiallythose swept along by the new tide of German thought.It was given memorable expression by a Birmingham Unitarian called George Dawson. "I love religion and flowers" he said; "but I hate botany andtheology." 11 He liked the experience of the numinous, the direct perception typical of the Romantics,but not the structuring of Christian truths the Enlightenment had continued to teach. In the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries such attitudesbegan to make inroads on the Evangelical movementitself. In America the Congregationalist HoraceBushnellled the way in reformulating Evangelicalteaching in broader terms. The effect was to undermine doctrinal conviction. According to the mostrecent research, there is no doubt that this processconstituted the chief solvent of Christian orthodoxyamongst English-speaking Protestants in the nineteenth century. Biblical criticism has sometimesbeen awarded the dubious palm. Another possibleclaimant has been evolutionary thought inspired byDarwin. In fact neither was the primary agent for thesubversion of orthodoxy. It was rather the tendencyto mystic religiosity, a diffused Romantic influencethat was coming in, especia1ly from Germany. Themore advanced Evangelical thinkers in the late nineteenth century created a liberal Evangelical movement which was to be strong, especially in Congregationalism and amongst Anglican Evangelicals inthe first half of the twentieth century. The very heartof Romanticism, an imprecise apprehension of theCrux: March 1990Nol. XXVI, No.1
Evangelical Christianity and Romanticismsupernatural, was an element making for liberalthinking within the Evangelical movement.What then can be concluded overall? First, it canbe established that Evangelical Christianity is capable of adaptation. It was gradually transposed intoa Romantic key as the nineteenth century went on.Evangelicalism has not remained static over time, awooden cultural relic as it has often been depicted inless discerning historical works. It is commonlythought to be incapable of change. That is not true.Evangelicalism changed enormously in order toremain in touch with the spirit of the age. IndeedEvangelicalism responded to the flow of Westernculture as much as any other movement embedded incivilization. Romantic sensitivities made Evangelicals emphasize afresh aspects of the Bible to whichthe eyes of previous generations had been closed.The renewed quest for the supernatural, for example, ensured that some took up living by faith.The founder of the Bristol orphanages, GeorgeMuller, comes to mind. Muller and other
and Romanticism D.W. Bebbington Dr. Bebbington is Senior Lecturer in History at the University of Stirling, Scotland. This article is the second in a series of three entitled 'Evangelical Christianity and Western Culture Since the Eighteenth Century' and was presented by the auth
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