Wildlife & Farming - WildCRU Wildlife Conservation .
Wildlife& FarmingConservation on lowland farmsRuth Feber & David Macdonald
Wildlife& FarmingConservation on lowland farmsRuth Feber & David Macdonald
ContentsCitationThis book should be cited as:Feber RE and Macdonald DW (2013) Wildlife & Farming: Conservation on Lowland Farms.Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, University of Oxford.Published byWildlife Conservation Research Unit,Department of Zoology,University of Oxford,The Recanati-Kaplan Centre,Tubney House, Abingdon Road,Tubney, Abingdon, OX13 5QL. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit 2013Second Edition 2017All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by meanswithout the prior written permission of WildCRU.The authors accept no liability whatsoever for any loss or damage arising from theinterpretation or use of the information, or reliance upon the views contained herein.ISBN0-9546376-6-6Designed bywww.tpcreative.co.ukPrinted bywww.techniqueprint.comFront cover Ben Hall (rspb-images.com)Wildlife and FarmingPreface2Habitats5Field margins7Hedgerows15Woodland & scrub23Crops31Grasslands39Ponds47Ditches55Rivers & streams63Landscapes71Wildlife79Plants81Butterflies & moths89Beneficial invertebrates97Amphibians & reptiles105Small mammals113Water voles & otters121Brown hare129Bats135Birds143Thank you1511
PrefaceThis is a practical Handbook,providing advice to practical people.The question it answers is a crucialone: how to conserve wildlife onworking farms in Britain.This Handbook is about delivering part of that vision: functioningfarms, alive with wildlife, in a rich landscape that will engage andexhilarate the public who, ultimately, pay for it.Modern British farmers, and the agrienvironment schemes that incentivisethem, aspire to be custodians of acountryside that provides the nationwith food security alongside vibrantwildlife and an inspiring landscape.Farmers and policymakers want toknow what to do to fulfil this vision forwildlife and farming.Science in general, and the WildCRU in particular, is collaborative.We are quick to acknowledge, and sincerely to thank, the manycolleagues whose excellent work in diverse institutions underpinthe advice and information given here. Because we know ourown work best, we use our own case studies as examples. Ourfarmland history began with large scale experimental studies offield margin management at Wytham, near Oxford. Thereafterour journey took us to field-scale experiments with set-aside,then farm system comparisons of conventional and organicfarms, then landscape systems in the Chichester Plain and,most recently, the Upper Thames - lessons from all of these arefound herein. But some readers will want more detail, so weare publishing a companion volume ‘Wildlife Conservation onFarmland’, which will synthesize the scientific evidence from ourfarmland studies over the last 25 years. Julian Dowse/Natural EnglandOver twenty-five years ago, the Wildlife Conservation ResearchUnit (part of the University of Oxford’s Department of Zoology)set out to help provide the answers. Our purpose was to workwith farmers, not against them, to foster the sort of countrysidethat society values. So, we began by seeking farmers’ opinionsand ideas for how better to integrate wildlife on farmland andto learn about their problems with wildlife. The down-to-earthapproach reflects the WildCRU’s mission, which is to achievepractical solutions to conservation problems through originalscientific research. The key word is evidence: the WildCRU’srole is to provide the scientific evidence that helps practitionersdecide what to do. The evidence that supports the advice in thisHandbook has taken us 25 years to gather.We have worked closely with government and non-governmentorganisations, amongst them the Wildlife Trusts, Defra,Environment Agency and Natural England - we thank them,acknowledge warmly their input, and hope that they and theirconstituencies will find this Handbook useful. We are thrilledthat the Handbook is endorsed by Natural England and we areindebted to the Rivers Trust, the Holly Hill Charitable Trust andNatural England for their generous support.This WildCRU Handbook is an idea whose time has come. Inthe last couple of years the nation has been formulating a newvision for the environment. The Government’s Chief ScientificAdvisor took the lead on reviewing food security. Natural Englandproduced its audit of ‘Lost Life: England’s lost and threatenedspecies’. September 2010 saw the publication of Professor SirJohn Lawton’s review, ‘Making Space for Nature’, with its catchyadvice of ‘better, bigger, more, joined’, ranking the priorities forimproving management of protected areas, increasing their size,creating new ones and joining them up. 2010 also saw publicationof the UK’s National Ecosystem Assessment and, in 2011,theNatural Environment White Paper ‘The Natural Choice: securingthe value of nature’, advocates moving towards a landscapescale approach to conservation. The concept of paying forecosystem services is beginning to be understood and applied.2Wildlife and FarmingThe Handbook is simple to use. There are nine chapters onhabitats and nine on wildlife groups. Each chapter follows thesame format. Each briefly summarises up to date knowledgeon each habitat/wildlife group, making key points leading toa management summary and a list of relevant EnvironmentalStewardship options for each habitat/wildlife group, togetherwith sources of more information. Each chapter has two featureBoxes giving WildCRU research highlights. This is a ‘What to do’book, and we are already at work on a companion volume on‘How to do it’.Ruth E. Feber and David W. MacdonaldWildCRU, OxfordWildlife and Farming3
Habitats4Wildlife and FarmingWildlife and Farming5
Oxeye daisies Ruth FeberFieldmarginsField margins are among the most extensive and ubiquitousuncropped habitats on farmland and have the potential toprovide habitat for a range of wildlife. Over-wintering sites forinvertebrates, refuges for small mammals, nectar and pollenresources for pollinators, and nesting and feeding sites forbirds can all be encouraged by establishing field margins. Aswell as being habitats in their own right, field margins protectother features, such as hedgerows or watercourses, from farmoperations. They can also act as corridors, helping wildlifemove through the landscape.Key points Field margins or buffer strips will benefit a range of farmwildlife species Different field margin options are possible, such assowing with a tussocky grass mixture, includingwildflowers to benefit nectar feeders, or cultivatingmargins for rare arable plants Aim for a mosaic of patches of taller and shortervegetation around the farm, cut infrequently onceestablished and do not cut in summer.Overleaf image: view from Beacon Hill National Nature Reserve, Hampshire Ruth Feber6Wildlife and FarmingWildlife and Farming7
Field marginsField margins are the strips of landbetween the field boundary (such asa hedge) and the crop. Field marginscan be deliberately managed tobenefit key farmland species andbuffer strips are one of the mostpopular agri-environment schemeoptions.Female common blue butterfly nutmeg66 CC BY NC ND 2.0Field margins may contain a greatdiversity of plants, including thosecharacteristic of woodland (hedgebottoms), wetland (ditch banks),grassland (grass margins) and arable(field corners and crop edges). Fieldmargins can be established aroundboth arable and grass fields; in arableareas they are especially valuable as they provideundisturbed breeding and overwintering sites forwildlife. They act as buffers, protecting hedgerows,ditches and streams from farming operations, andthey form a network across the landscape, oftenlinking bigger areas of wildlife habitat, such aswoodlands or wetlands.Establishing and managing field marginsHowever, grass-only strips rapidly form dense swards and canexclude naturally colonising wildflowers, often resulting in lowspecies diversity. Including wildflowers (such as yarrow, blackknapweed and oxeye daisy) in the seed mixture will greatlyincrease the value of margins for wildlife, providing a greaterdiversity of seed sources and host plants for invertebrate larvae,as well as pollen and nectar supplies for pollinators. Choosingspecies that flower and set seed at different times throughout theseason will be even more beneficial.Naturally regenerated margins or buffer stripsField margins help buffer other features, suchas ditches, from farming operations Rosalind ShawNaturally regenerated margins are the bestconservation option on light or shallow soilswithout grass weed problems Evelyn Simak CC BY SA 2.0 Emily Ledder/Natural EnglandSimple grass-only margins (above) provide breeding andoverwintering habitats, while the addition of wildflowers(below) can greatly enhance their value to wildlifeField margins can be established and managedin several ways, described below, which will havedifferent consequences for the wildlife that usethem.Sown field margins or buffer strips Michael Trolove CC BY SA 2.08Many buffer strips are established by sowing witha simple grass mixture, often including tussockyspecies such as cocksfoot. Tussocky marginsencourage invertebrates such as carabid beetles,which predate aphids, and they can act as a sourcefrom which predatory invertebrates can colonisefields. They also provide cover and nesting sites formany small mammals, and habitat for amphibiansand reptiles. Wild grass seeds are less importantin the diet of farmland birds than broad-leavedweed seeds, but they are consumed by a number offinches and gamebirds.Wildlife and FarmingField margins can also be established through naturalregeneration. If soil fertility is relatively low, and the soil seedbank and local flora relatively rich, these swards may have ahigher conservation value than sown ones, making this methodof establishment the most beneficial option. The decline of rarearable plants, such as the cornflower, can also be helped throughnaturally regenerated buffer strips on light or shallow soils thatare cultivated every one or two years. Varying the depth andtiming of cultivation can enhance plant diversity.Naturally regenerated margins can also provide important foodresources for birds, both in summer and winter, in the formof weed seeds and grain from volunteer crops and a range ofinvertebrates. The patchy sward may make it easier for birds tofind their prey. However, on very fertile soils, where the existingplant community is poor, or where there is a grass weed problem,naturally regenerated strips may be difficult to manage, and sowngrass and wildflower mixtures would be the better option.Grassland field marginsField margins, or buffer strips, benefit wildlife in grassland aswell as arable situations. Grassland margins can be establishedby leaving a strip uncut around the edge of grass fields.These measures allow a taller, tussocky sward to develop.This encourages seed production and increases invertebrateabundance, both of which provide food for other wildlife.Field margins in grass fields also buffer other habitats such ashedgerows and ditches, in a similar way to margins in arable fields. Ros ShawField margins can develop from the existing grassland, or a grass and wildlflower seed mixture can be used tocreate them, following guidelines for arable fields. The margins will need occasional management, either throughgrazing or cutting, to prevent too much scrub developing. Agri-environment scheme funding is available forgrassland field margins.Wildlife and Farming9
Field marginsCutting managementMargins should not be cut in summer, to allowplants to flower Raj CC BY NC ND 2.0Most margins are managed by some form of mowing,initially to aid establishment, and in later years to prevent theencroachment of scrub and maintain floral diversity. In the 1224 months following sowing, frequent cutting may be neededto help the margin establish but, after this, mowing should becarried out not more than once every two years, or less often ifpossible. A diversity of structure is especially valuable (Box 1),and this can be encouraged by only cutting margins infrequently,cutting different margins in different years, or cutting half themargin and leaving half uncut. If possible, leaving some woodyvegetation or scrub to develop will add to the habitat diversity forwildlife.Margins and buffer strips should not be cut during the latespring or summer, as this removes sources of pollen and nectarwhen they are crucially important, and may disturb nestinginvertebrates, small mammals and birds. Where cutting isneeded, for example to maintain the plant diversity of grassand wildflower sown buffer strips, or to control scrub, cutting inautumn will open the sward and reduce competition in winter(Box 2). However, it is still important to leave some patches orstrips of the margin uncut each year to provide undisturbed areasfor overwintering invertebrates and other species.Structural diversity of vegetation helpsbeneficial invertebrates such as spiders Martin James CC BY 2.0Ideally, cuttings should be removed. Leaving cut hay lying, ratherthan removing cuttings, may slow down the decline of annualweeds, such as black grass, and increase some perennial weeds,such as common nettle. Over the longer term, if the cuttingsare left on the margins, plant species able to exploit higher soilnutrient status tend to increase, resulting in a less diverse sward.Wild bird seed mixture and nectar flower mixtureTypically, wild bird seed mixture comprises a variety of species,planted in blocks or strips, including cereals, millet, kale, quinoaand sunflower. In general, kale seems to support high densities ofthe widest range of birds (insectivorous and seed-eating species).Quinoa can support large numbers of finches, sparrows andbuntings.Knapweed is an important component ofnectar flower mixes Miles WolstenholmeSiting of field margins or buffer stripsPermanent grass only, or grass and wildflower, sown marginsshould not be sited where there are populations of rare arableplants in the crop edge, as the arable plants will not be able tocompete with the grassy sward. Cultivated margins are, instead,appropriate for arable plants, as these species need regulardisturbance to survive.Margins are best situated next to otherfeatures, such as hedges Ruth FeberBeetle banksTussocky beetle banks help predatoryinvertebrates to colonise arable fields Andrew Smith CC BY SA 2.010Beetle banks are linear grassy ridges about 2m wide, createdacross the middle of large cereal fields. Tussocky grass species,such as cocksfoot, are sown on the bank to provide overwintering cover for invertebrate predators of cereal aphids.Beetle banks also help to reduce field size, enabling predators,such as ground beetles and wolf spiders, to fully colonise the cropbefore the start of an aphid invasion. The banks do not extendto the field margin so farm machinery can pass, and the fieldcontinues being used as a single unit. Tussocky grasses sown onbeetle banks also provide ideal habitat for small mammals andare used by ground-nesting birds.Wildlife and FarmingNectar flower mixtures, designed to provide food resources forinvertebrates, contain at least four nectar-rich flowering plants,for example, red clover, birds-foot trefoil, common knapweedand sainfoin. Nectar flower mixtures are particularly valuable forsupporting populations of pollinators.Field margins are often best situated next to other features suchas hedgerows or wetland features such as ditches. Field marginscan help buffer hedgerows and ditches from farm operations,and a diversity of habitats in close proximity will have wildlifebenefits, providing a greater range of food resources, shelterand breeding habitats, especially benefitting less mobile species.Corners of fields can be particularly valuable. In general, widerfield margins or buffer strips will be best for wildlife.Field margins should ideally be established in such a way thatthey link to each other, and link other habitats across the farm.Increasing the linkages will help maximise their effectivenessas movement corridors for wildlife around the farm and acrossthe landscape. Wood mice, for example, use different habitatsat different times of year, often moving out of fields and intowoodlands after harvest. A network of field margins, especiallyalongside other habitats such as hedgerows, will help them moveand disperse safely.Linking field margins across a landscapeincreases their value to wildlife Rosalind ShawWildlife and Farming11
WildCRUproject:Field marginsUpper ThamesProject:Harvest MicePeacock butterflyBox 1WildCRU project: Field marginsGrass and wildflower mixture Ruth Feber Roy Stead CC BY NC ND 2.0Patchy margin management is best for butterfliesKey resultsWildflowers on field marginsKey resultsField margins are important breeding areas for butterfly specieson arable farmland. Two of the most well known butterflies are thepeacock and small tortoiseshell. These butterflies hibernate in thewinter and, after emerging in the spring, lay clusters of eggs onnettle plants. Although an extremely common plant, our studiesshowed that nettles must be of a certain height and in the rightplace to be suitable for the caterpillars. Even common butterflyspecies often have precisehabitat requirements forfeeding or breedingIn a large-scale field experiment we investigated how mowingaffected the performance of different sown wildflowers on fieldmargins. The greatest effect was that margins mown in springand autumn, with cuttings removed, had more species comparedto cutting at other times. More germination opportunities inmargins that were more open during the autumn and winterappeared to be a critical factor in helping species establishand persist. Timing of mowing affectswildflower species in fieldmargins differentlySmall tortoiseshell butterflies chose small plants, often youngnettle regrowth, on which to lay their eggs. Such leaves aretypically higher in water and soluble nitrogen than older leaves,providing better nutrition. Peacock butterflies chose the tipsof much taller nettle plants for their eggs, perhaps because thetypically larger clusters of caterpillars needed more plant materialon which to feed. Managing field marginvegetation to createstructurally differentareas will help provide arange of habitats Leave some areas uncut,mow different areas indifferent years, or do notmow the entire marginwidthMowing some areas and leaving other areas uncut will result instructurally more diverse swards, providing greater opportunitiesfor egg-laying and feeding for butterfly species and otherinvertebrates. Mowing different areas in different years, or notmowing the entire margin width, could be used to help achievethis effect.Open swards and reduced competition during the winter wasparticularly beneficial to winter-green species such as lady’sbedstraw. Other species, such as cowslip and oxeye daisyrequired some cutting to maintain their frequency. In contrast,common knapweed did best when it was left uncut in summerand able to regenerate from seed.Where the local flora are impoverished or the conditionsare unsuitable in other ways for naturallyregenerated buffers or margins, sowing a mixturewith even just a few wildflower species ratherthan grasses only will have many conservationbenefits. Choosing species with similarmanagement requirements can help maximisereturn on the investment.Aspect was an important factor for egg-laying, particularlyin spring, when clumps of larvae were found on margins thatreceived maximum sunlight. More larval clumps were located onsouth-facing margins than on any other aspect, for both species.Warmth can increase caterpillar survival rates.12Box 2 If mowing is required,mowing in autumnencourages wildflowerspecies to persist.Mow different areas indifferent years If only a few wildflowersare sown, choosespecies with similarrequirements and tailorthe management to suitthemScabious is avaluable nectarsource formany insects Kate Jewell CCBY SA 2.0Cluster of peacock caterpillarson common nettle Ruth FeberWildlife and FarmingWildlife and Farming13
Field marginsManagement summaryGrass-only marginsGrass and wildflowermarginsNaturally regeneratedmarginsBeetle banksWild bird seed mixtureand nectar flowermixturesKey actions Include tussocky grasses such as cocksfootand cut infrequently Margins situated next to hedgerows andditches are especially valuable Include nectar sources such as knapweed,scabious and oxeye daisyPotential benefitsBenefits all small mammal species andpredatory invertebrates such as carabidbeetlesCreates a diversity of habitatsBenefits pollen and nectar feeders, otherinvertebrates, and a range of wildlifespecies More species-rich seed mixtures will enhanceplant, seed and invertebrate food supplies Cut infrequently, and not in summer onceestablished Preferred establishment method on light,Encourages local flora and providesless fertile soilsconditions suitable for rare arable plantsif cultivated Create beetle banks across arable fieldsBenefits small mammals and predators Include tussocky grasses and manage asof cereal aphids, such as spiders andgrass-only marginscarabid beetles Sow in strips or plotsEncourages nectar feeding invertebratesand a range of bird speciesHedgerowsOptions especially relevant for field WT2Countryside stewardship optionsNectar flower mixBeetle banksFlower-rich margins and plotsCultivated areas for arable plantsAutumn sown bumblebird mixWild bird seed mixture4-6m buffer strip on cultivated land4-6m buffer strip on intensive grasslandIn-field grass strips12-24m watercourse buffer strip on cultivated landRiparian management stripBuffering in-field ponds and ditches in improved grasslandBuffering in-field ponds and ditches on arable landMixed species mature hedgerow, MidMidHedgerows are among the most important remaining areasof semi-natural habitat on lowland farmland. Many of ourhedgerows are ancient and of historical interest, and allhedgerows are able to provide a host of resources for wildlife:food, shelter, nesting sites, refuge from farm operationsand corridors across the landscape. A whole range of wildlifespecies, common as well as rare and declining, depend onhedgerows for their survival.Key points Hedgerows are of huge value to farmland wildlife Trim not more than every three years in January/Februaryand aim for a variety of hedge heights Hedge-laying or coppicing can rejuvenate hedgesFind out more at:www.wildlifetrusts.org www.rspb.org.uk www.plantlife.org.uk www.gwct.org.ukwww.naturalengland.org.uk14 Tree Council Image Bank Protect hedgerow treesWildlife and FarmingWildlife and Farming15
HedgerowsHedgerow managementHedgerows are the most important wildlifehabitat over large stretches of lowland farmlandand are essential for a great variety of plantsand animals. They are especially important forfarmland birds, butterflies and moths, bats anddormice, with at least 47 species of conservationconcern using hedgerows as their main habitat.The Hedgerow Biodiversity Action Plan concludesthat over 600 plant species, 1500 insects, 65 birdsand 20 mammal species have been recorded atsome time living or feeding in hedgerows.Hedgerows are important for the decliningyellowhammer Malene Thyssen GNUMany different aspects of hedgerows are important for wildlife.Species-rich hedges will provide a variety of foods at differenttimes of year, with flowers supplying nectar and pollen for insectsin the spring and summer, and fruits and berries sustainingbirds and mammals over the winter months. Hedges are usedas nesting sites, while bats will use tall hedgerows to commutebetween feeding and roosting areas. Hedgerow trees provideshelter for insects such as moths, and may act as stepping stonesacross farmed landscapes. Hedges and hedge base vegetationprovide many species with cover from predators and refuge fromfarming operations such as ploughing and harvest.Hawthorn flowers provide nectar and pollen,and the berries provide food over winter Dave Key, HedgelinkHedgerows and dormiceDormouse occurrence in hedgerows has declined by 64% sincethe late 1970s. Dormice need species-rich hedgerows thatcan provide different foods at different times of year, such ashawthorn flowers in spring, insects in summer, and hazelnutsin autumn to build fat reserves for the winter. Hedgerows cansupport breeding populations of dormice and are also usedas dispersal corridors,linking copses that aretoo small to supportviable populations ontheir own. However,even small gaps in ahedgerow can preventdormouse dispersal,so sympatheticmanagement is crucial. Dormice leave tooth marks on the outsideof hazelnut holes, while neat gnaw marksfollow its circumference, smooth to thetouch PTES16Wildlife and FarmingGappy hedge, probably due to flailing at sameheight for many years Rob Wolton, HedgelinkHedgerows are still being lost from the Englishcountryside but, over recent years, this has beendue more to neglect or harmful management,particularly repeated annual cutting to the sameheight for many years, rather than grubbing out.Many remaining hedgerows are in poor condition.The main problems are excessive gaps, a structurethat is too short or too thin (especially at the hedgebase), or low fruit (e.g. berry) production. Hedgesneed to be rejuvenated through laying or coppicing,as well as cut on a rotation that allows growth and flowering,both of which will have benefits for the health and vigour of thehedge as well as for the wildlife that use it.CuttingIf hedges need to be cut, aim for differentheights around the farm Rob Wolton, HedgelinkBrown hairstreak caterpillar on blackthorn Rob Wolton, HedgelinkRecent studies show hedges should be cut on a minimum of athree year cycle to deliver more benefits for biodiversity. Hedgeshrubs produce few flowers in the second year and, since manyhedges are cut early in the autumn, any berries that are producedare removed before they can be taken by birds and other wildlife.Cutting not more than once every three years will result in muchbetter flowering and fruit production, and will help birds, andinsects such as the brown hairstreak butterfly, whose eggs needto safely overwinter on young blackthorn stems. Trimming inJanuary or February rather than the autumn will allow berries tobe used by wintering birds, and will avoid the destruction of birds’nests during the spring and summer.Rather than trimming all hedges to the same height, it isimportant to aim for a variety of hedge heights and widths toprovide a range of habitats for wildlife. Yellowhammers andpartridges, for example, prefer short hedgerows with grassmargins, while bullfinches prefer wide hedgerows over 4m tall.Dormice and many species of bat benefit from tall hedgerows,especially if they link patches of woodland.Trim hedges not more than once everythree years to increase fruit supplies Rob Wolton, HedgelinkWildlife and Farming17
HedgerowsHedgerow treesHedge layingLaying a hedge in the Midland style Rob Wolton, HedgelinkHedge laying was once common practice on nearlyall farms and its decline has resulted in a decreasein the value of hedges for wildlife. Hedge laying isanother form of hedge management. Each stem ispartially cut through, then the stems are laid overand woven together to produce a thick living barrierwhich re-grows from the base. There are over 30styles in the UK, each developed over many yearsto suit different climates, farming practices and treeand shrub types. Laying the hedge rejuvenates it,encourages new shrub growth and keeps it bushyand healthy. Once laid, trimming should keep thehedge in good order for up to 50 years when it maybe laid again.A mature oak hedgerow tree Tree Council Image Bank, HedgelinkCoppicingCoppicing involves cutting stems to ground leveland allowing the stools to re-grow. It is particularlyuseful if a hedgerow is ready for rejuvenationbut has too few stems for hedge-laying, or if thehedgerow is very wide. If the re-growth is protectedfrom grazing by deer and livestock, a thick densehedgerow can be recreated in this way in just a fewyears. It also gives the opportunity to plant up anygaps.New hedgerowsA good hedgerow, planted in the right place, can provide shelter,make a stock-proof barrier, enhance the landscape and benefitwildlife. New hedgerows that link with existing ones or with otherhabitats will be particularly valuable (Box 4), and hedgerows incombination with other features, such as ditches or field margins,may be especially valuable.A hedge one year after laying Durham Hedgerow Partnership, HedgelinkHedge base vegetationThe value of a hedge for wildlife can be greatlyenhanced by managing the hedge base toencourage plenty of vegetation. Hedge bases mayhave remnant populations of woodland flowerssuch as primroses, or plants such as cow parsleyand hedge garlic, all of which provide importantsources of nectar for a range of pollinator species.Tussocky grasses at the hedge base provide safeplaces for invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles andsmall mammals. Roots and woody stumps provideadditional wildlife habitat.Hedgerow trees are traditionally part of the UKlandscape and havens for wildlife (Box 3), but theirnumbers have declined dramatically because thereare not enough young trees to replace specimensthat die or are felled, mainly because saplings areprevented from growing by hedge cutting.Mature or dead hedgerow trees should be replacedby avoiding some saplings of native speciesduring hedge trimming, or by planting new trees.If they are not a hazard, some old or dead treescan be retained, as they support important insectcommunities and may be used by hole-nestingbirds. In 2010, Entry Level Scheme (ELS) optionswere introduced to support the tagging of young hedger
This book should be cited as: Feber RE and Macdonald DW (2013) Wildlife & Farming: Conservation on Lowland Farms. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, University of Oxford. Published by Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Recanati-Kaplan
Farming Simulator 19 Activation Code [addons] V 0.9.1.3 mod for Farming Simulator 19. . If you are passionate about the Farming Simulator 19 Mods as we are then you . Antivirus 2020 Avast Premier Activation Code License Key for Free update 5 . Farming Simulator 19 Money Cheat PC (unlimited money) Looking . Farming Simulator 19 Serial .
August 2012 Contents: Introduction 3 Findings: Organic Farming Systems Benefit the Environment, Human Health, and National Prosperity 13 Organic Farming Improves Soil and Water Quality 13 Organic Farming Enhances Biodiversity and Pollinator Health 18 Organic Farming Sequesters More Carbon, Slowing Climate Change 22 Organic Farming Reduces Toxic Chemical Exposure 25
Outdoor Ethics & Conservation Roundtable March 9, 2022 The Distinguished Conservation Service Award, and Council Conservation Committees. DCSA and Conservation Committees 2 March 9, 2022 . (7:00pm Central) Safety moment -Campout planning BSA Conservation Video Council Conservation Committee Toolbox Distinguished Conservation .
2 Managing risk in farming MAIN POINTS IN CHAPTER 1 The risks of farming Farmers make decisions every day that affect farming operations. Many of the factors that affect the decisions they make cannot be predicted with complete accuracy; this is risk. Farming has become increasingly risky as farmers become more commercial. Farmers need to .
Livestock and Poultry Production in India Species Livestock Census 2007 (no in millions) Livestock Census 2012 (no in millions) Growth Rate Cattle 199.1 190.9 -4.10 . Rabbit Keeping, How to Start Small Scale Rabbit Farm, Small Rabbit Farming, Rabbit Farming in India, Rabbit Farming Business, Rabbit Farming .
Sample Rabbit Farming Business Plan Template by Owogram.com SECTION 2 A: Business Overview Rabbit Farming in Nigeria is one of the aspects of successful agricultural business that can be ventured into. For the entrepreneurs who are interested in animal husbandry or livestock farming, commercial rabbit farming can prove to be very
Hydroponic Green House Farming Business? 23. What are the Projected Pay-Back Period and IRR of Hydroponic Green House Farming Business? 24. What is the Process Flow Sheet Diagram of a Hydroponic Green House Farming project? www.entrepreneurindia.co. 25. What are the Market Opportunities for setting
For first award of AS level in Summer 2017 For first award of A level in Summer 2018 Subject Code: 3210 CCEA GCE Specification in Business Studies Version 3: 13 November 2018. Version 3: 8 November 2018 . Contents . 1 Introduction 3 . 1.1 Aims 4 1.2 Key features 4 1.3 Prior attainment 4 1.4 Classification codes and subject combinations 4 . 2 Specification at a Glance 5 3 Subject Content 6 . 3 .
