COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY

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COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGYBSc.Counselling PsychologyVI SEMESTERCORE COURSE(CUCBCSS 2014 Admn.Onwards)UNIVERSITY OF CALICUTSCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

School of Distance EducationUNIVERSITY OF CALICUTSCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATIONSTUDY MATERIALBSc Counselling PsychologyVI SEMESTER2014 Admn.OnwardsCOUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGYPrepared & Scrutinized by:ELDHOSE.N.JResearch ScholarDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of CalicutSettings & Lay Out by: SDE,Computer CellCounselling PsychologyPage 2

School of Distance Education@ ReservedCONTENTSMODULE 1DEFINITIONS OF COUNSELLINGMODULE 2ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSISMODULE 3COUNSELLING CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTSMODULE 4GROUP COUNSELLINGCounselling PsychologyPage 3

School of Distance EducationMODULE 1DEFINITIONS OF COUNSELLINGCounselling is a process by means of which the helper expresses care andconcern towards the person with a problem, and facilitates that person's personalgrowth and brings about change through self-knowledge.The British Association for Counselling (BAC) may have been the firstprofessional association to adopt a definition of professional counselling. In1986 it published the following definition:“Counselling is the skilled and principled use of relationship tofacilitate self- knowledge, emotional acceptance and growth and the optimaldevelopment of personal resources. The overall aim is to provide anopportunity to work towards living more satisfyingly and resourcefully.Counselling relationships will vary according to need but may be concernedwith developmental issues, addressing and resolving specific problems,making decisions, coping with crisis, developing personal insights andknowledge, working through feelings of inner conflict or improvingrelationships with others. The counsellor’s role is to facilitate the clients workin ways that respect the client’s values, personal resources and capacity forself-determination.”In 1997 the Governing Council of the American Counselling Association(ACA) accepted the following definition of professional counselling:“Counselling is the application of mental health, psychological or humandevelopment principles, through cognitive, affective, behavioural or systemicinterventions, strategies that address wellness, personal growth, or careerCounselling PsychologyPage 4

School of Distance Educationdevelopment, as well as pathology”. The definition also includes theseadditional attributes: Counselling deals with wellness, personal growth, career, and pathologicalconcerns. In other words, counsellors work in areas that involve relationships.These areas includeintra- and interpersonal concerns related to finding meaning and adjustment insuch settings as schools, families, and careers. Counselling is conducted with persons who are considered to be functioningwell and those who are having more serious problems. Counselling meets theneeds of a wide spectrum of people. Counselling is theory based. Counsellors draw from a number of theoreticalapproaches, including those that are cognitive, affective, behavioural, andsystemic. These theories may be applied to individuals, groups, and families. Counselling is a process that maybe developmental or intervening.Counsellors focus on theirclients’ goals. Thus, counselling involves both choice and change. In somecases, “counselling is a rehearsal for action”GOALS OF COUNSELLINGSome of the different goals that are adopted either explicitly or implicitlyby counsellors are listed: Insight: The acquisition of an understanding of the origins and development ofemotional difficulties, leading to an increased capacity to take rational controlover feelings and actions (Freud: ‘where id was, shall ego be’). Relating with others: Becoming better able to form and maintain meaningfuland satisfying relationships with other people: for example, within the family orworkplace.Counselling PsychologyPage 5

School of Distance Education Self-awareness: Becoming more aware of thoughts and feelings that had beenblocked off or denied, or developing a more accurate sense of how self isperceived by others. Self-acceptance: The development of a positive attitude towards self, markedby an ability to acknowledge areas of experience that had been the subject ofself-criticism and rejection. Self-actualization or individuation: Moving in the direction of fulfillingpotential or achieving an integration of previously conflicting parts of self. Enlightenment: Assisting the client to arrive at a higher state of spiritualawakening. Problem-solving: Finding a solution to a specific problem that the client hadnot been able to resolve alone. Acquiring a general competence in problemsolving. Psychological education: Enabling the client to acquire ideas and techniqueswith which to understand and control behaviour. Acquisition of social skills: Learning and mastering social and interpersonalskills such as maintenance of eye contact, turn-taking in conversations,assertiveness or anger control. Cognitive change: The modification or replacement of irrational beliefs ormaladaptive thought patterns associated with self-destructive behaviour. Behaviour change: The modification or replacement of maladaptive or selfdestructive patterns of behaviour. Systemic change: Introducing change into the way in that social systems (e.g.families) operate. Empowerment: Working on skills, awareness and knowledge that will enablethe client to take control of his or her own life. Restitution: Helping the client to make amends for previous destructivebehaviour.Counselling PsychologyPage 6

School of Distance Education Generativity and social action: Inspiring in the person a desire and capacity tocare for others and pass on knowledge (generativity) and to contribute to thecollective good through political engagement and community work.THE COUNSELLING PROCESSCounselling can be conceptualized as a series of stages or steps that leadone through the counselling process. Cormier and Hackney (1987) described afive-stage process: relationship building, assessment, goal setting, interventions,and termination and follow-up. Each of the stages is discussed in detail.Stage One: Relationship BuildingThe successful outcomes in counselling is associated with the counsellorclient relationship which is the outcome of all therapeutic efforts. There are twonecessary conditions. They are:1. Counsellor-offered conditions:The core conditions for successfulcounselling are empathic understanding(Empathic understanding as a process thatinvolves communicating a sense of caring and understanding) unconditional positive regard (counsellor communicating to clients thatthey are of value and worth as individuals) congruence(Behaving in a manner consistent with how one thinks andfeels) respect(focuses on the positive attributes of the client) immediacy(direct, mutual communication ) confrontation(Pointing out discrepancies in what the client is saying anddoing) concreteness (Helping clients discuss themselves in specific terms) self-disclosure(Making the self-known to others)Counselling PsychologyPage 7

School of Distance EducationThese eight core conditions are necessary and sufficient for constructivepersonality change to occur.2. . Counsellor-and client offered conditionsThe working alliance is another concept that can be used to describe thecounselling relationship. It goes beyond focusing on counsellor-offeredconditions and includes counsellor- and client-offered conditions.The working alliance is composed of three parts. They are: agreement between the counsellor and client in terms of the goals ofcounselling agreement between the counsellor and client in terms of the tasks ofcounselling emotional bond between thecounsellor and client.The strength of the working alliance depends on the degree of agreementrelating to goals and tasks of counselling and the level of emotional attachmentbetween the counsellor and client.Stage Two: Assessment and DiagnosisAssessment and diagnosis help a counsellor develop an in-depthunderstanding of a client and identify mental disorders that require attention.This understanding can facilitate goal setting and also suggest types ofintervention strategies.Assessment procedures can be divided into two categories standardized measures – include psychological tests that have standardizednorm groups non standardized measures–include strategies such as the clinical interviewand assessment of life history.Stage Three: Formulation of Counselling GoalsThree functions that goals serves in the counselling process:Counselling PsychologyPage 8

School of Distance Education Motivational function: The clients are involved in establishing thecounselling goals. They may be more motivated when they have specific,concrete goals to work toward. It is also important for counsellors to encourageclients to make a verbal commitment to work on a specific counselling goal. Educational function: Clients can learn new skills and behaviours that theycan use to enhance their functioning. For example, a counselling goal might beto become more assertive. During assertiveness training clients can learn skillsto enhance their functioning in interpersonal situations. Evaluative function: Clear goals allow the counsellor and client anopportunity to evaluate progress.Counselling goals may also be conceptualised as either process oroutcome.Process Goals: These establish the conditions necessary to make thecounselling process work. These goals relate to the issues of formulatingpositive relationship by promoting the core conditions. Process goals areprimarily the counsellor's responsibility.Outcome goals: These specify what the client hopes to accomplish incounselling. The counsellor and client should agree on these goals and modifythem as necessary. Five types of outcome goals include: Facilitatingbehaviour change Enhancing coping skills Promoting decision-making Improving relationships Facilitating the client's potential.Stage Four: Intervention and Problem SolvingThe counsellor and client may choose strategies to implement from avariety of interventions, including individual, group, couples, and familycounselling. It may be best to begin with individual counselling for clients withCounselling PsychologyPage 9

School of Distance Educationproblems of an intrapersonal nature. Couples or family counselling may bemore appropriate for clients with difficulties of an interpersonal nature, as in amarital or parent-child conflict. The counsellor should provide an overview ofthe different treatment approaches available; describe the role of the counsellorand client for each procedure; identify possible risks and benefits that mayresult; and estimate the time and cost of each procedure. In addition, it isimportant for the counsellor to be sensitive to client characteristics such asvalues and beliefs when selecting an intervention strategy. Counsellors shouldalso be aware of a client's personal strengths and weaknesses in selecting acounselling approach.A six-stage model for problem solving strategies include: problem detection problem definition identification of alternative solutions decision -making execution verificationStage Five: Termination and Follow-UpTermination can be done when clients have worked through theirconcerns and are able to proceed forward in their lives without the counsellor'sassistance. At this point, counselling can be terminated. It is usually best for thecounsellor and client to agree on a termination date, reducing the chance ofpremature termination or feelings of ambivalence.Termination should be planned several weeks in an advance to provide anopportunity for the client to prepare psychologically. The counsellor should alsoarrange for appropriate follow-up with the client. An appointment for a formalfollow-up counselling session can be made 2 to 4 weeks after the final session.This can allow the counsellor and client adequate time to evaluate how thingsCounselling PsychologyPage 10

School of Distance Educationare going without counselling. Clients should be reassured that they will be ableto obtain additional counselling services if the need arises. They should also beinformed as to how they can request these services in the future.COUNSELLING RELATIONSHIPThe relationship between a counsellor and client is the feelings andattitudes that a client and therapist have towards one another, and the manner inwhich those feelings and attitudes are expressed. One theory about the functionof the counselling relationship is known as the secure-base hypothesis, which isrelated to attachment theory. This hypothesis proposes that the counsellor actsas a secure-base from which clients can explore and then check in with. Secureattachment to one's counsellor and secure attachment in general have beenfound to be related to client exploration. Insecure attachment styles have beenfound to be related to less session depth than securely attached clients.Some counsellors regard the counselling relationship as not onlynecessary, but sufficient for constructive changes to occur in clients. Thoseviewing counselling predominantly as a helping relationship tend to beadherents of the theory and practice of person-centred therapy. Carl Rogers, thefounder of person-centred therapy, views counselling relationship as a helpingrelationship in which the counsellor creates an environment that facilitates theprocess of self-awareness. There is an almost total absence of techniques inRogerian theory due to the unique character of each counselling relationship.Most important is the quality of the relationship between client and counsellor.The counsellor-offered qualities, called the 'core conditions', are empathicunderstanding, respect and acceptance for clients' current states of being, andcongruence or genuineness.Empathy is the ability to understand what the client is feeling. This refersto the counsellor's ability to understand sensitively and accurately [but notsympathetically] the client's experience and feelings in the here-and-now. It is aCounselling PsychologyPage 11

School of Distance Educationskill used by person-centred therapists to show understanding of the clients’emotions. Empathy is different to sympathy in that sympathy is often seen asfeeling sorry for the client whereas empathy shows understanding and allowsthe client to further open up. An important task of the person-centred counselloris to follow precisely what the client is feeling and to communicate to them thatthe therapist understands what they are feeling.Unconditional positive regard refers to the counsellor accepting, respecting andcaring about clients. It does not mean the counsellor has to agree witheverything the client says or does, however, the counsellor should see the clientas doing the best he or she can and demonstrate this by expressing concernrather than disagreeing with him or her. Unconditional positive regard allowsclients to express how they are thinking without feeling judged, and help tofacilitate the change process by showing they can be accepted.Congruence is whether or not counsellors are genuine and authentic inwhat they say and do. Quite often, if the therapist is saying one thing but thebody language is reflective of something else, clients are aware of this and mayimpact on their trust and openness in the counselling relationship. Therefore, amajor role of counsellors is to be aware of their body language and what theyare saying as well as being in the present moment. If confusion arises, thecounsellor needs to be able to address this with the client.CHARACTERISTICS OF A COUNSELLORSeveral skills need to be brought into a counselling session. Theseinclude:1. Attitudinal skills;There is probably nothing which has a greater impact on the outcome of acounselling session than the counsellor's attitude. Attitudes can be positive orreactive. They include:Counselling PsychologyPage 12

School of Distance Education Respect, for oneself as well as for the client, expressed by praising theclient’s individuality and structuring the counselling to the needs,capacities and resources of the individual Genuineness/congruence: It is the consistency or harmony between whatthe counsellor says, and what he/she is. This condition reflects honesty,transparency, and trust. Unconditional, positive regard which makes clients feel welcomed andvalued as individuals. Empathy: the ability to understand what the client experiences, and tocommunicate this kind of feeling. Carl Rogers (1980), defined it asperceiving the internal frame of reference of another person. Self-disclosure: It helps the client to communicate easily, and to revealsomething about him/herself, creating mutual trust, and disarming theclient, so that he/she feels free and talks openly. Confrontation, which uses the client’s behaviour, or words, to point outinconsistencies between what is said and what is done. When handling healthydevelopment in counselling.2. Listening skills;Being a good listener entails receiving and sending appropriate messages.Listening to clients is not just a matter of receiving what they say, but alsoreceiving how they say it. Sometimes how they communicate is much morerevealing that what they actually say, which may be more concealing thanrevealing. Listening skills are basic to all human interaction, whether thepurpose is for getting information, conducting in-depth interviews, or offeringinformal help. Listening is considered to be the most important counsellingskill.3. Verbal communication skills;Counselling PsychologyPage 13

School of Distance EducationThe use of words in counselling is a skill which, like any other skill, requirespractice to master. Verbal communication takes place first in the literal orcontent phase. If inappropriate vocabulary is used, rapport and understandingwill be hindered. When this happens, miscommunication occurs. In addition tothe literal phase of verbal communication, there is also the emotional phase.This refers to other attributes involved in vocal interactions, such as volume, theemotional edge, and other non-verbal cues such as gestures. Counsellors mustbe sensitive to both the literal and emotional phases of verbal communication.4. Giving leads.Leads may be defined as statements that counsellors use incommunication with the clients.Leads have been classified into categories of techniques, namely:a) Restatement of Content: Attempts to convey understanding by repeating orrephrasing the communication.b)Questioning: Seeks further information and asks the person counselled toelaborate a point.c)Reflection of Feeling: Understanding from the client's point of view andcommunicating that understanding.d)Reassurance: Serves as a reward or reinforcing agent. It is often used tosupport the client'sexploration of ideas and feelings or test different behaviour.e) Interpretation: Explains meaning behind the client's statements.AREAS OF COUNSELLINGEducational Counselling : Educational counselling is a process of renderingservices to pupils who need assistance in making decisions about importantaspects of their education, such as the choice of courses and studies, decisionsregarding interests and ability, and choices of college and high school.Counselling PsychologyPage 14

School of Distance EducationPersonal/Social Counselling: Personal counselling deals with emotionaldistress and behavioural difficulties, which arise when individuals struggle todeal with developmental stages and tasks. Any aspect of development can beturned into an adjustment problem, and it is inevitable that everyone encounters,at some time, exceptional difficulty in meeting an ordinary challenge. Forexample, Anxiety over a career decision, Lingering anger over an interpersonalconflict, Insecurities about getting older etc.Vocational Counselling: Vocational counselling is defined as individualcontacts with those counselled, in order to facilitate career development. Thisdefinition and category encompasses counselling situations such as helpingstudents become aware of the many occupations to consider, interpreting anoccupational interest inventory to a student, assisting a teenager to decide whatto do after school etc,Child Counselling: This area of counselling encourages children to bolster theirexisting strengths through different therapy techniques so as to overcome theirdifficulties and prevent future problems.Community counselling: This area centres around helping clients work throughtheir mental health concerns, drawing on leadership skills and resources toinstitute community-wide changes.Marriage and Family Counselling: Marriage and family counsellors observehow people behave within the family, and identify relationship problems, andcome up with treatment plans.Genetic counselling: the process, by which patients or relatives, at risk of aninherited disorder, are advised of the consequences and nature of the disorder,the probability of developing or transmitting it, and the options open to them inmanagement and family planning.Counselling PsychologyPage 15

School of Distance EducationRehabilitation counselling: Rehabilitation counselling deals with helping thedisabled achieve personal and professional goals, and lead their lives morefreely.Substance abuse counselling: These counsellors diagnose and assess addictionproblems, and treat clients in a variety of ways.ETHICAL ISSUESUnethical behaviour includes:1. Incompetence, that is, inadequate knowledge and the absence of skillsnecessary for professional behaviour.2. Lack of integrity, moral commitment and sound professional judgementto adhere to acceptable standards of right and wrong action.3. llingrelationship is confidential.4. Exceeding the level of professional competence. Counsellors mustrecognize their strengths and limitations in serving their clients in themost competent manner - or refer them to other experts.5. Imposing values on clients. It is a responsibility of counsellors to beaware of his/her values and of their impact on others.6. Creating dependence on the part of the clients to meet the counsellor'sown needs, e.g., sexual relations and social interactions.7. Improper advertising, especially advertising that presents the counselloras one who has the skills, competence and/or credentials that he, or she,does not actually possess.8. Charging fees for private counselling to those who are entitled to freeservices through the counsellor.Ethical codes, or standards have been designed to provide guidelines forbehaviour. Ethical codes serve several purposes:1. They protect members from practices that may result in public condemnation.Counselling PsychologyPage 16

School of Distance Education2. They provide a measure of self-regulation, thus giving members a certainfreedom and autonomy.3. They provide clients a degree of protection from cheats and the incompetent.4. They help to protect counsellors from the public if they are sued formalpractice.Counselling PsychologyPage 17

School of Distance EducationMODULE 2ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSISThe fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of MentalDisorder (DSM-IV), published by the American Psychiatric Association in1994, is the basic instrument in making and reporting formal mental diagnosisall over the world. Following are the main characteristics of DSM-IV:· Five axes describe full clinical presentation.· Clear inclusion and exclusion criteria have been described for disorders.· Disorders are categorized under broad headings.· Empirically grounded prototypic approach to classification is adopted.· The major advantage in using this multiaxial classification system is that itensures that attention is given to certain types of disorders, aspects of theenvironment and areas of functioning that might he overlooked if the focus wereon assessing a single presenting problem. In addition to diagnosing the client asto mental health, personality disorders, and physical condition, scales have beendeveloped to help the clinician make consistent determinations of the severity ofthe psychosocial stressors (Axis IV) and the global assessment of functioning(GAF) (Axis V).Among the ranks of counselling professionals, there also has been a greatdeal of controversy related to the nature and appropriateness of assessment anddiagnosis. However, a full understanding of assessment concepts and practicesis necessary whether or not counsellors choose to use tests and other diagnosticinstruments. It is necessary to communicate with those who do use these tools incase conferences, referrals, and correspondence, as well as to understand theprofessional literature.Objections to the use of assessment and appraisal techniques are based on fivedifferent grounds:Counselling PsychologyPage 18

School of Distance Education· It is reductionistic, reducing the complexity of the person into diagnosticcategories.· It is artificial.· It ignores the quality of the relationship between the examiner and the testtaker.· It judges people, casting a label on them.· It is overly intellectual, relying on complex concepts, often at the expense of atrue understanding of the individualAssessment TechniquesCounsellors use a variety of techniques and procedures in the process ofgathering data. Some can be highly structured and designed so that each time aprocedure is used the process is exactly the same. This is called using astandardized format. A less rigorous but also important way of obtaininginformation is through the use of nonstandardized instruments.Nonstandardized techniques broadly involve observation and self-reportinstruments.Observation: Half of the message that a client communicates is nonverbal.Counsellors should be attuned to all of the nonverbal cues available and note thediscrepancies and inconsistencies between these and verbal messages.Observational Instruments include Checklists: The purpose of a checklist is to focus the observer's attentionto the presence or absence of predetermined characteristics. Rating Scales: A rating scale is a special kind of checklist on which theobserver can note not only the presence of a given characteristic orattribute but also the degree to which it manifests itself. Anecdotal Reports: Anecdotal reports are subjective descriptions of aclient's behaviour at a specific time or for a specific situation.Counselling PsychologyPage 19

School of Distance EducationSelf-Report Instruments: They can be short enough to be filled out by a client afew minutes before the first visit to a counsellor and can be designed to providea variety of data. A few self-reported instruments are described below: Questionnaires: Questionnaires can be used to collect vital informationto determine the counselling or consulting needs of groups ororganizations. Interviews: An interview is a form of questionnaire that is read to aclient by a counsellor. Personal Essays and Autobiographies: More extensive writtenmaterial, such as having a client write a personal essay on a given topic isanother way to gather useful data in a short time and can be given as ahomework assignment. A more elaborate version of the personal essay isto have the client write an autobiography. Journals: Having a client keep a journal on a regular basis and notingnew issues and changes provides another method of obtaining self-reportdata on an ongoing basisPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTINGThere is also a need for assessment devices that can be administered in aconsistent manner to a wide variety of people. Many different tests, usuallypublished instruments, are standardized. A standardized test is one that hasdetailed, specific directions for the administration of the instrument, includingthe exact words with which to introduce the instrument to the client and anytime limits. The procedures for scoring are also specifically detailed so that allpeople scoring a given test will record results in the same manner.There are two basic categories of standardized tests: norm-referenced andcriterion-referenced testsNorm-Referenced TestsCounselling PsychologyPage 20

School of Distance EducationAnother characteristic of most published instruments is that they havenorms to which test scores can be compared. Norms, or normative tables, aregenerally included in the manual accompanying published tests. These tablesprovide data on the performance of various groups of people taking the sameinstrument during the period of time when the test was being developed. Normgroups are often nationwide samples, but they can also be regional or local. Testitems are carefully tested and analyzed before being included in the finalinstrument. The reliability, or consistency, of scores and the instrument'svalidity, the ability of a test to measure what it purports to measure, aredetermined for constructing a standardized measure.Criterion-referenced testsA criterion-referenced test is a test that is used to ascertain an individual'sstatus with respect to a well-defined behavioural domain. A well-constructedcriterion-referenced test yields a clear description of what a client can or cannotactually do.Types of Standardized InstrumentsAssessment instruments have been developed to measure virtually all aspectsof humans. Some of them are as follows. Achievement Tests: Achievement tests are designed to assess what aperson has learned in a given subject, such as music, mathematics, orGerman, as a result of specific curricular experience. The instrument canbe designed for one subject or can include a variety of subjects. Examplesof the latter type of instrument are the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills and theMetropolitan Achievement Tests. Aptitude (Intelligence) Tests: A test used as a predictor of some futureperformance is called an aptitude test. Aptitude tests are designed tomeasure the propensity to perform certain tasks that may not

MODULE 4 GROUP COUNSELLING. School of Distance Education Counselling Psychology Page 4 MODULE 1 DEFINITIONS OF COUNSELLING Counselling is a process by means of which the helper expresses care and concern towards the pers

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