Dry Beans Booklet - Nda.agric.za

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Dry beans— Production guideline —DJULFXOWXUH IRUHVWU\ ILVKHULHV'HSDUWPHQW JULFXOWXUH )RUHVWU\ DQG )LVKHULHV5(38%/,& 2) 6287 )5,&

Dry beans— Production guideline —March 2010Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

2010Printed and published byDepartment of Agriculture, Forestry and FisheriesCompiled by:Directorate Plant Production in collaboration with the ARCDesign and layout byDirectorate Agricultural Information ServicesObtainable fromResource CentreDirectorate Agricultural Information ServicesPrivate Bag X144PRETORIA0001

CONTENTGeneral.1Cultivation practices .5Post-havest handling . 20Production schedule . 23Utilisation . 23Acknowledgement . 24

GENERALScientific name: Phaseolus vulgarisCommon names: Small White Beans, Speckled Sugar Beans, Brown andYellow Haricot Beans and Green BeansOrigin and distributionThe dry bean is at present regarded as one of the most important fieldcrops in South Africa on account of its high protein content and dietarybenefits. Among the pulses (i.e. annual leguminous food crops that areharvested for dry seeds) the dry bean is by far the most important. Drybeans (Phaseoluss spp.) originated in Central and South America. Withinthe genus Phaseoluss there are three species which are agronomicallyimportant in South Africa. Within each species there are many seed typeswhich differ in respect of size, shape and colour. Within each type, various cultivars exist, the seeds of which differ very little from one another.However, considerable differences may occur in adaptability, growth habit,disease resistance and many other characteristics.Production levels in South AfricaSouth Africa produces only 75 % of the dry beans consumed in the country, the others are imported. A continuous effort is being made to obtainhigher production per unit area in order to increase profitability, on the one1

hand, and to meet the ever-increasing demand for food, and especiallyprotein on the other. The optimal profitability, production, marketing andconsumption of dry beans can only be accomplished by means of properand purposeful research. A direct result hereof is that the average yieldhas increased from the 0,6 t/ha obtained in the early seventies to approximately 1,2 t/ha in the eighties. It has furthermore contributed to the recordcrop of 108 000 t obtained in 1990.Major production areas in South AfricaProvinceDistrictTownMpumalangaGert SibandeSecundaMakaligwaErmeloNkangalaMiddelburg, DelmasFree StateThabo MofutsanyaneBetlehem, Witsieshoek,HarrismithNorth WestNgaka Modiri MalemaMafikeng, Delareyville,Lichtenburg, ZeerustDr Kenneth KaundaVentersdorp, Klerksdorp,PotchefstroomBojanalaRustenburg, Moretele, n, and vicinitySedibengVereeniging and vicinityWest RandRandfontein and vicinityuMgugundlovuPietersmaritzburg, Mooi RiveriZingolweniEzingolweniUguScottburg/Umzinto North,Pennington, Hibberdene, PortShepstone, Margate, Impenjati/Port Edward, Harding, ILembe,Port View, CragadourDescription of the plantDry beans are warm season annual legumes with upright or bush as wellas creeping type or indeterminate growth habit. The first true leaf formedafter the cotyledons emerge from the soil is simple or unifoliate and allsubsequent leaves are compound (with three leaflets). Small flowers (selfpollinated) are produced in clusters at various nodes on the plant and maybe either white or lavender in color. Mature pod color, seed color and seedsize or shape varies depending upon market class and/or variety. The2

crop requires between 85 and 120 days from planting to maturity depending on variety. The first half of this period is vegetative development andthe latter half is reproductive. In vine types there is an overlap of the twoperiods because continued vegetative growth occurs after flowering begins. Flowering continues for 2 to 3 weeks so there can be new pods, halfdeveloped pods and fully developed pods as well as newly opened flowerspresent on many plants in early August. Pods are initially green changingto light brown or tan as they mature. Each pod can contain 2 to 4 seedsdepending upon variety.CultivarsThe National Dry Bean Cultivar Trials are conducted by the AgriculturalResearch Council-Grain Crops Institute (ARC-GCI) annually. The information is published by the DPO in SA Dry Beans. Dry beans are classifiedinto types according to:Colour and seed sizeSmall white beans (15 to 25 g per 100 seeds), used mainly for canningpurposes; 10 to 20 % of local production.1. Red speckled or speckled sugar beans (red speckles on a beige background) (40 to 55 g per 100 seeds); 65 to 75 % of local production2. Large white kidney beans (80 to 100 g per 100 seeds); 5 to 10 % oflocal production3

3. Carioca beans (khaki stripes on a beige background) 20 to 25 g per100 seeds); 3 to 5 % of local production4. Alubia beans (large white) (45 to 55 g per 100 seeds); 1 to 5 % of localproductionGrowth habitDeterminate or bush type (type 1); indeterminate compact upright (type 2);indeterminate runner type (short runners) (type 3).Growing seasonTemperatures, especially during the night, determine the length of thegrowing season of a cultivar: short (85 to 94 days) medium (95 to104 days) long (105 to 115 days)Climatic requirementsTemperatureThe dry bean is an annual which thrives in a warm climate. It grows optimally at temperatures between 18 to 24 C. The maximum temperatureduring flowering should not exceed 30 C for P. vulgariss and 26 C for P.coccineus. High temperatures during the flowering stage lead to abscission of flowers and a low pod set, resulting in yield loss. Day temperaturesbelow 20 C will delay maturity and cause empty mature pods to develop.RainfallDry beans cultivated under rainfed conditions require a minimum of 400to 500 mm rainfall during the growing season, however, an annual total of600 to 650 mm is considered ideal.Soil requirementsBeans have to be planted in warm soil (minimum temperatures preferablyabove 13 C) after all danger of frost has passed. Beans grow well in soilswith a depth of at least 90 cm, which have no deficiencies and are welldrained. Sandy loam, sandy clay loam or clay loam with a clay content of4

between 15 and 35 % is suitable. With sandy soils, problems of low fertilityor nematode damage may occur.Beans prefer an optimum soil pH of 5,8 to 6,5, and are highly sensitive toacidic soils (pH (H2O) 5,2 and acid saturation higher than 10 %). Thebeans will also not grow well in soils that are compacted, too alkaline orpoorly-drained.CULTIVATION PRACTICESSoil preparationSeedbed preparation for the planting of dry beans follows the same patternas that for any row crop planted in the spring. The seedbed must be deep,level and firm as this ensures better surface contact between the seedand the soil, increasing the absorption of moisture. A level seedbed alsofacilitates planting to a uniform depth.PlantingThe most suitable planting date is determined by the following factors: Correct soil temperature Probability of heavy rain, which may lead to soil encrustation and restrictseedling emergence Possibility of high temperatures later in the season, which may causeblossom drop5

Length of the growing season(high temperatures duringflowering, rain during harvestand frost damage should beavoided) Crop rotation programmes (position of the bean crop in the total crop setup, i.e. planted afteranother crop such as maize)Planting dates are restricted mainly by the possible occurrence offrost (planting too late), rain atharvesting, resulting in poor quality (planting too early). Planting dates for dry beans in South Africa rangefrom November to mid-January in areas where frost occurs. In frost-freeareas, March and April are the best for planting beans. The large white kidney bean (P. coccineus) is an exception and is planted from mid-Novemberto mid-December and is not adapted to winter production.Spacing, plant population and planting depthThe interrow spacing for all types of beans under commercial productionis 900 mm because dry beans are usually cultivated in rotation with maize.For early-maturing cultivars, especially those with a determinate growthhabit, a row spacing of 750 mm is recommended in the case of mechanisation. See the following table for recommendations. Planting depth is determined by the soil texture and its moisture content. Generally the seeds areplaced 2,5 to 5,0 cm below the soil surface.Spacing and plant populationTypeSpacing withinrows (mm)Spacing betweenrows (mm)Plant populationEarly maturing,determinate75750177 000Medium and latematuring75900150 000900115 000Large white kidney100–150FertilisationIt is recommended that beans be planted on soils which have been wellfertilised previously.6

General fertility is more advantageous than direct fertilisations, as beansare sensitive to high concentrations of mineral salts.Macro-nutrientsThe total withdrawal figure per 1 ton of dry bean seed produced is 36 kgN, 8 kg P and 18 kg K.NITROGEN (N)Guidelines for nitrogen applicationYield potential (t/ha)N fertilisation (kg/ha)1,52,0152,53045Inoculation of dry bean seed is regarded as inefficient. Consequently, drybeans should be considered as incapable of satisfying all of their nitrogenrequirements through N fixation. The application of all the nitrogen at planting time is recommended, particularly where undercomposted material hasbeen ploughed in before planting.Deficiency symptoms are: Lower leaves become light green and then yellow and eventually die. Young leaves may be lighter green than normal.For fertiliser recommendations see the following table.PHOSPHORUS (P)Guidelines for phosphorous fertilisationSoil analysisAmbicP application for potential (t/ha)Bray 1P mg/kg1,52,02,5P fertilisation (kg/ha)101316222815201216202027101316253491215 45 55555Under commercial production the yield responses to phosphorous fertilisation are not dramatic in dry beans and P is not normally a yield-restrictionfactor. Under subsistence production where little fertiliser is applied, Pcan be a yield-limiting factor. Where the P content of the soil is lower than20 ppm (Bray 1) it is recommended that superphosphate be broadcastedand ploughed into the soil to a depth of 15 to 20 cm before planting.7

Phosphorous fertiliser must still be band-placed at the time of planting andin low pH soils, phosphorus can be utilised efficiently by band-placing 3,5cm to the side and 5 cm below the seed. Deficiency symptoms are: Youngleaves are small and dark green, older leaves senesce prematurely. Plantshave short internodes and reduced branching.POTASSIUM (K)Guidelines for K fertilisationSoil analysisAmbicK application for potential (t/ha)NH4OAC1,5K mg/kg2,02,5K fertilisation (kg/ha)40402227326059192429807817212610098151924 100 98000When dry beans are grown on soils with a high clay content, potassiumis not normally a limiting factor. Potassium deficiencies are most likely tooccur on sandy soils with an analysis of less than 50 ppm K. The optimumleaf content is 2 % potassium.Deficiency symptoms are: Bright yellow chlorosis of older leaves, appearing from the margins and then extending rapidly to the centre of leaflets.Micro-nutrientsMOLYBDENUM (MO)If the soil has a pH (H2O) of less than 6, a seed treatment of 100 g sodiummolybdate per 50 kg seed and/or a foliar spray of 100 g sodium molybdateper hectare should be given. If the pH (H2O) is below 5,3 and there are noRhizobia in the soil, no reaction will be achieved by applying Mo.Deficiency symptoms are similar to those of N as it is important for Nmetabolism.ZINC (ZN)The critical level of zinc in bean tissue is 15 to 20 ppm. Levels greater than120 ppm can decrease yields. The availability of zinc is highest in slightlyacid soils (pH 6,0-6,8) and lowest at pH (H2O) above 7,4. Deficiency symp-8

toms are pale, yellow leaves, especially between veins, and near the tips.The plants become deformed and dwarfed and may die. Pod formation ishampered and the plants are slow to mature.MANGANESE (MN)Deficiencies only occur on soils with a high pH value. Symptoms includesmall leaves with a mosaic yellowing in the interveinal areas while theveins remain prominently green. Deficiencies can be corrected by applyingmanganese sulphate (MnSO4) at 15 to 20 kg/ha.BORON (B)Boron toxicity is a more frequent problem than deficiency and symptomsinclude chlorosis and dwarfing. With time, the chlorosis increases and resembles burn, with the leaf margins curling over. Beans should not followsunflower which has received boron fertiliser.IRON (FE)Deficiency occurs on calcareous or saline soils where the pH (H2O) valuesare above 7,4. Symptoms are characterised by bright yellow leaves andgreen veins. Deficiencies can be rectified by a 1 % FeSO 4 solution orchelate used as a foliar spray.Soil acidity (pH)The optimum soil pH levels for dry beans are:pH (H2O): 5,8-6,5pH (KCl): 4,8-5,5The percentage of acid saturation has to be lower than 10 % for the cultivation of dry beans. The soluble aluminum content has to be less than 25 to30 %. The pH can be raised (acid saturation reduced) by applications ofagricultural lime. The application of lime to acid (low pH) soils can makecertain micronutrients, such as molybdenum, more available to the plant.The availability of phosphorus (P) is influenced by the pH. It is readilyavailable between pH (H2O) 6 and 7. Calcium and magnesium deficienciescan be alleviated with agricultural lime. High pH soils are often associatedwith an excess of sodium salts which reduce nutrient uptake. Beans willtolerate a sodium saturation percentage of up to 8 or 10 and an electricalconductivity of up to 1 mmho/cm.9

IrrigationIrrigation offers the potential for increasing yields and enabling production in otherwise unsuitable soils. Sprinkler irrigation is the most frequentmeans of irrigation for dry beans. The sprinkler irrigation system used isdetermined by the size and shape of the lands, as well as available labourand capital. In areas where water is unrestricted (not merely supplementary irrigation), the soil should be wet to field capacity to the depth of the1 m root zone before planting. As soon as the soil is sufficiently dry, theseedbed should be prepared and planted and thereafter the field shouldnot be irrigated until the seedlings have emerged. Irrigation schedulingis essential for optimum yield per unit of water. The critical, moisturesensitive growth stages are flowering and early pod set which occur at 40to 50 % and 50 to 60 % of the growing season.It is important that irrigation cycles be scheduled correctly, as excess moisture can create conditions conducive to root rot and Sclerotinia. Moisturestress can also aggravate some root rots such as Fusarium oxysporum.Irrigation should cease when a quarter of the bean pods have turned yellow. For the correct irrigation scheduling expert advice must be obtainedWeed controlEfficient weed control is a prerequisite for high dry bean yields. Dry beanscompete poorly with weeds as they are low-growing plants and do not easily overshadow weeds. Early control is extremely important because theroot system of the plant develops at this stage and some weeds secretechemical substances which inhibit plant growth. At a later stage weedshamper the harvesting and threshing processes and adversely affect thequality of the crop.Mechanical weed controlMechanical weed control should begin during seedbed preparation (remove all weeds) and be repeated with a tiller between the rows whennecessary up to the flowering stage. Care should be taken that implementsdo not damage the crop by using row spacings which permit easy accessand taking care that roots are not damaged. Cultivation between the rowsis also advantageous because it loosens the soil and improves aerationand water penetration. Weeds in the rows have to be pulled by hand.Chemical weed controlChemical weed control can be implemented before planting or before and/or after emergence. Sufficient herbicides have been registered to control10

all weeds throughout the entire growing period of dry beans. Furtherparticulars of herbicides registered for use on dry beans are available inanother publication obtainable from the ARC-GCI.HarvestingDry beans have a moisture content of 50 % at physiological maturity. Thebeans, however, are only ready for harvesting when the moisture contentdrops to 16 % (the ideal being 15 %). Seeds may split during threshingwhen the moisture content is less than 12 % and such seeds are rejectedby canners and seed companies and is difficult to clean without furtherseed split or broken seed coats occuring. Dry beans should be harvestedwhen all the pods have turned yellow, but before becoming so dry that thepods begin to shatter.Dry beans can be harvested in three ways: The plants are pulled by hand and threshed by driving a tractor overthem on a threshing floor. Smaller quantities can be threshed by hand bybeating with a stick in a hessian bag. The seed can be separated fromthe chaff by using the wind. Partially mechanised systems—the plants are pulled by hand, placed inwindrows and threshed with a harvester or stacked, whereafter they arethreshed with a stationary threshing machine. Fully automated system—the beans are pulled mechanically, raked intowindrows and threshed by means of an automated combine.The following tips may be useful: Beans should be pulled when the moisture content of the pods is temporarily high (to prevent shattering), i.e. early in the morning before the dewhas evaporated. Mechanised harvesting must be done when there is no danger of thecrop being damaged by rain. To prevent cracking and splitting, beans should be threshed at slowcylinder speeds with a machine with an axial flow threshing mechanism.Pest and disease controlPests and diseases may have been partially responsible for the unstableproduction of the past. Incidence and severity vary between seasons owing to environmental and management practices. Integrated management,using all suitable control measurements, is recommended.11

Diseases of the roots and stem, known as Aroot rot, often occur in a complex and can include any of the following: Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia,charcoal rot and Sclerotiumm root rot (Southern blight), the first three being the most frequent. The latter four can also cause rotting of seed anddamping off. Root rot can be prevented to a certain degree, but not treated.Fungicides can only be applied to seed as a preventative measure againstPythiumm and Rhizoctonia root rot.12

13Causal muthianumPhoma exiguaPseudomonassyringaee pv.syringaeDiseaseAngular leafspotAnthracnoseAscochytaBacterialbrown spotLeaf symptoms are small,irregular brown spotswhich are sometimes surrounded by a light-greenzone. Older leaves have atattered appearanceDark-brown to black concentric lesions on leaves andpods. Can cause raggedleaves and defoliationBrick-red to purplish darkening of veins on lower leafsurface. Brown lesions,becoming sunken with areddish-brown border, onpods. Dark lesions (varioussizes) on seedsDark-grey to brown angularlesions on leaves.Small spore-carrying organsresembling beardstubble on underside oflesions. Severe infectionleads to leaf yellowing anddefoliation. Large,round, flat, reddish lesions onpods and elongateddark-brown lesions on stemsSymptomsModerate temperatures,humidCool to moderate andhumidCoo

Red speckled or speckled sugar beans (red speckles on a beige back ground ) (40 to 55 g per 100 seeds); 65 to 75 % of local production 2. Large white kidney beans (80 to 100 g per 100 seeds); 5 to 10 % of . level and firm as this ensures better surface contact between the seed and the soil, increasing the absorption of moisture. A level .

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