Chapter 22 – Project Management - Pace
Chapter 22 – Project ManagementChapter SummaryChapter 22 Project management1
Topics covered Risk management Managing people TeamworkChapter 22 Project management2
Software project management Concerned with activities involved in ensuringthat software is delivered on time and onschedule and in accordance with therequirements of the organisations developingand procuring the software. Project management is needed becausesoftware development is always subject tobudget and schedule constraints that are setby the organisation developing the software.Chapter 22 Project management3
Success criteria Deliver the software to the customer at theagreed time. Keep overall costs within budget. Deliver software that meets the customer’sexpectations. Maintain a happy and well-functioningdevelopment team.Chapter 22 Project management4
Software management distinctions The product is intangible.– Software cannot be seen or touched. Software projectmanagers cannot see progress by simply looking at theartefact that is being constructed. Many software projects are 'one-off' projects.– Large software projects are usually different in some waysfrom previous projects. Even managers who have lots ofprevious experience may find it difficult to anticipateproblems. Software processes are variable and organizationspecific.– We still cannot reliably predict when a particular softwareprocess is likely to lead to development problems.Chapter 22 Project management5
Management activities Project planning– Project managers are responsible for planning.estimating and scheduling project development andassigning people to tasks. Reporting– Project managers are usually responsible for reportingon the progress of a project to customers and to themanagers of the company developing the software. Risk management– Project managers assess the risks that may affect aproject, monitor these risks and take action whenproblems arise.Chapter 22 Project management6
Management activities People management– Project managers have to choose people for theirteam and establish ways of working that leads toeffective team performance Proposal writing– The first stage in a software project may involvewriting a proposal to win a contract to carry outan item of work. The proposal describes theobjectives of the project and how it will be carriedout.Chapter 22 Project management7
Risk management Risk management is concerned withidentifying risks and drawing up plans tominimise their effect on a project. A risk is a probability that some adversecircumstance will occur– Project risks affect schedule or resources;– Product risks affect the quality or performance ofthe software being developed;– Business risks affect the organisation developingor procuring the software.Chapter 22 Project management8
Examples of common project, product,and business risksRiskAffectsDescriptionStaff turnoverProjectExperienced staff will leave the project before it isfinished.Management changeProjectThere will be a change of organizationalmanagement with different priorities.Hardware unavailabilityProjectHardware that is essential for the project will notbe delivered on schedule.Requirements changeProject and productThere will be a larger number of changes to therequirements than anticipated.Specification delaysProject and productSpecifications of essential interfaces are notavailable on schedule.Size underestimateProject and productThe size of the system has been underestimated.CASE toolunderperformanceProductCASE tools, which support the project, do notperform as anticipated.Technology changeBusinessThe underlying technology on which the systemis built is superseded by new technology.Product competitionBusinessA competitive product is marketed before thesystem is completed.Chapter 22 Project management9
The risk management process Risk identification– Identify project, product and business risks; Risk analysis– Assess the likelihood and consequences of theserisks; Risk planning– Draw up plans to avoid or minimise the effects ofthe risk; Risk monitoring– Monitor the risks throughout the project;Chapter 22 Project management10
The risk management processChapter 22 Project management11
Risk identification May be a team activities or based on theindividual project manager’s experience. A checklist of common risks may be used toidentify risks in a project– Technology risks.– People risks.– Organisational risks.– Requirements risks.– Estimation risks.Chapter 22 Project management12
Examples of different risk typesRisk typePossible risksTechnologyThe database used in the system cannot process as many transactions persecond as expected. (1)Reusable software components contain defects that mean they cannot be reusedas planned. (2)PeopleIt is impossible to recruit staff with the skills required. (3)Key staff are ill and unavailable at critical times. (4)Required training for staff is not available. (5)OrganizationalThe organization is restructured so that different management are responsible forthe project. (6)Organizational financial problems force reductions in the project budget. (7)ToolsThe code generated by software code generation tools is inefficient. (8)Software tools cannot work together in an integrated way. (9)RequirementsChanges to requirements that require major design rework are proposed. (10)Customers fail to understand the impact of requirements changes. (11)EstimationThe time required to develop the software is underestimated. (12)The rate of defect repair is underestimated. (13)The size of the software is underestimated. (14)Chapter 22 Project management13
Risk analysis Assess probability and seriousness of eachrisk. Probability may be very low, low, moderate,high or very high. Risk consequences might be catastrophic,serious, tolerable or insignificant.Chapter 22 Project management14
Risk types and examplesRiskProbabilityEffectsOrganizational financial problems force reductions in the Lowproject budget (7).CatastrophicIt is impossible to recruit staff with the skills required for the Highproject (3).CatastrophicKey staff are ill at critical times in the project (4).ModerateSeriousFaults in reusable software components have to be repaired Moderatebefore these components are reused. (2).SeriousChanges to requirements that require major design rework Moderateare proposed (10).SeriousThe organization is restructured so thatmanagement are responsible for the project (6).Seriousdifferent HighThe database used in the system cannot process as many Moderatetransactions per second as expected (1).Chapter 22 Project managementSerious15
Risk types and examplesRiskThe time requiredunderestimated (12).Probabilitytodevelopthesoftwareis HighSoftware tools cannot be integrated (9).HighEffectsSeriousTolerableCustomers fail to understand the impact of requirements Moderatechanges (11).TolerableRequired training for staff is not available (5).ModerateTolerableThe rate of defect repair is underestimated (13).ModerateTolerableThe size of the software is underestimated (14).HighTolerableCode generated by code generation tools is inefficient (8).ModerateInsignificantChapter 22 Project management16
Risk planning Consider each risk and develop a strategy tomanage that risk. Avoidance strategies– The probability that the risk will arise is reduced; Minimisation strategies– The impact of the risk on the project or productwill be reduced; Contingency plans– If the risk arises, contingency plans are plans todeal with that risk;Chapter 22 Project management17
Strategies to help manage riskRiskStrategyOrganizational financial Prepare a briefing document for senior managementproblemsshowing how the project is making a very importantcontribution to the goals of the business and presentingreasons why cuts to the project budget would not be costeffective.Recruitment problemsAlert customer to potential difficulties and the possibility ofdelays; investigate buying-in components.Staff illnessReorganize team so that there is more overlap of work andpeople therefore understand each other’s jobs.Defective componentsReplace potentially defective components with bought-incomponents of known reliability.Requirements changes Derive traceability information to assess requirementschange impact; maximize information hiding in the design.Chapter 22 Project management18
Strategies to help manage riskRiskStrategyOrganizationalrestructuringPrepare a briefing document for senior managementshowing how the project is making a very importantcontribution to the goals of the business.DatabaseperformanceInvestigate the possibility of buying a nt timeInvestigate buying-in components; investigate use of aprogram generator.Chapter 22 Project management19
Risk monitoring Assess each identified risks regularly to decidewhether or not it is becoming less or moreprobable. Also assess whether the effects of the riskhave changed. Each key risk should be discussed atmanagement progress meetings.Chapter 22 Project management20
Risk indicatorsRisk typePotential indicatorsTechnologyLate delivery of hardware or support software; many reportedtechnology problems.PeoplePoor staff morale; poor relationships amongst team members; high staffturnover.OrganizationalOrganizational gossip; lack of action by senior management.ToolsReluctance by team members to use tools; complaints about CASEtools; demands for higher-powered workstations.RequirementsMany requirements change requests; customer complaints.EstimationFailure to meet agreed schedule; failure to clear reported defects.Chapter 22 Project management21
Key points Good project management is essential if software engineering projects areto be developed on schedule and within budget. Software management is distinct from other engineering management.Software is intangible. Projects may be novel or innovative with no body ofexperience to guide their management. Software processes are not asmature as traditional engineering processes. Risk management is now recognized as one of the most important projectmanagement tasks. Risk management involves identifying and assessing project risks toestablish the probability that they will occur and the consequences for theproject if that risk does arise. You should make plans to avoid, manage ordeal with likely risks if or when they arise.Chapter 22 Project management22
Managing people People are an organisation’s most importantassets. The tasks of a manager are essentially peopleoriented. Unless there is some understandingof people, management will be unsuccessful. Poor people management is an importantcontributor to project failure.
People management factors Consistency– Team members should all be treated in a comparable way withoutfavourites or discrimination. Respect– Different team members have different skills and these differencesshould be respected. Inclusion– Involve all team members and make sure that people’s views areconsidered. Honesty– You should always be honest about what is going well and what isgoing badly in a project.
Motivating people An important role of a manager is to motivate thepeople working on a project. Motivation means organizing the work and the workingenvironment to encourage people to work effectively.– If people are not motivated, they will not be interested inthe work they are doing. They will work slowly, be morelikely to make mistakes and will not contribute to thebroader goals of the team or the organization. Motivation is a complex issue but it appears that theirare different types of motivation based on:– Basic needs (e.g. food, sleep, etc.);– Personal needs (e.g. respect, self-esteem);– Social needs (e.g. to be accepted as part of a group).Chapter 22 Project management25
Human needs hierarchyChapter 22 Project management26
Need satisfaction In software development groups, basicphysiological and safety needs are not an issue. Social– Provide communal facilities;– Allow informal communications e.g. via socialnetworking Esteem– Recognition of achievements;– Appropriate rewards. Self-realization– Training - people want to learn more;– Responsibility.Chapter 22 Project management27
Individual motivationAlice is a software project manager working in a company that develops alarm systems.This company wishes to enter the growing market of assistive technology to help elderly anddisabled people live independently. Alice has been asked to lead a team of 6 developersthan can develop new products based around the company’s alarm technology.Alice’s assistive technology project starts well. Good working relationships develop withinthe team and creative new ideas are developed. The team decides to develop a peer-topeer messaging system using digital televisions linked to the alarm network forcommunications. However, some months into the project, Alice notices that Dorothy, ahardware design expert, starts coming into work late, the quality of her work deterioratesand, increasingly, that she does not appear to be communicating with other members of theteam.Alice talks about the problem informally with other team members to try to find out ifDorothy’s personal circumstances have changed, and if this might be affecting her work.They don’t know of anything, so Alice decides to talk with Dorothy to try to understand theproblem.Chapter 22 Project management28
Individual motivationAfter some initial denials that there is a problem, Dorothy admits that she has lostinterest in the job. She expected that she would be able to develop and use herhardware interfacing skills. However, because of the product direction that has beenchosen, she has little opportunity for this. Basically, she is working as a C programmerwith other team members.Although she admits that the work is challenging, she is concerned that she is notdeveloping her interfacing skills. She is worried that finding a job that involveshardware interfacing will be difficult after this project. Because she does not want toupset the team by revealing that she is thinking about the next project, she hasdecided that it is best to minimize conversation with them.Chapter 22 Project management29
Personality types The needs hierarchy is almost certainly anover-simplification of motivation in practice. Motivation should also take into accountdifferent personality types:– Task-oriented;– Self-oriented;– Interaction-oriented.Chapter 22 Project management30
Personality types Task-oriented.– The motivation for doing the work is the work itself; Self-oriented.– The work is a means to an end which is the achievement of individualgoals - e.g. to get rich, to play tennis, to travel etc.; Interaction-oriented– The principal motivation is the presence and actions ofco-workers. People go to work because they like to go towork.Chapter 22 Project management31
Motivation balance Individual motivations are made up of elementsof each class. The balance can change depending on personalcircumstances and external events. However, people are not just motivated by personal factorsbut also by being part of a group and culture. People go to work because they are motivated by the peoplethat they work with.Chapter 22 Project management32
Teamwork Most software engineering is a group activity– The development schedule for most non-trivialsoftware projects is such that they cannot becompleted by one person working alone. A good group is cohesive and has a team spirit.The people involved are motivated by the successof the group as well as by their own personalgoals. Group interaction is a key determinant of groupperformance. Flexibility in group composition is limited– Managers must do the best they can with availablepeople.Chapter 22 Project management33
Group cohesiveness In a cohesive group, members consider the group to bemore important than any individual in it. The advantages of a cohesive group are:– Group quality standards can be developed by the groupmembers.– Team members learn from each other and get to knoweach other’s work; Inhibitions caused by ignorance arereduced.– Knowledge is shared. Continuity can be maintained if agroup member leaves.– Refactoring and continual improvement is encouraged. Group memberswork collectively to deliver high quality results and fixproblems, irrespective of the individuals who originallycreated the design or program.
Team spiritAlice, an experienced project manager, understands the importance of creating acohesive group. As they are developing a new product, she takes the opportunity ofinvolving all group members in the product specification and design by getting them todiscuss possible technology with elderly members of their families. She also encouragesthem to bring these family members to meet other members of the development group.Alice also arranges monthly lunches for everyone in the group. These lunches are anopportunity for all team members to meet informally, talk around issues of concern, andget to know each other. At the lunch, Alice tells the group what she knows aboutorganizational news, policies, strategies, and so forth. Each team member then brieflysummarizes what they have been doing and the group discusses a general topic, such asnew product ideas from elderly relatives.Every few months, Alice organizes an ‘away day’ for the group where the team spendstwo days on ‘technology updating’. Each team member prepares an update on a relevanttechnology and presents it to the group. This is an off-site meeting in a good hotel andplenty of time is scheduled for discussion and social interaction.Chapter 22 Project management35
The effectiveness of a team The people in the group– You need a mix of people in a project group as softwaredevelopment involves diverse activities such as negotiatingwith clients, programming, testing and documentation. The group organization– A group should be organized so that individuals cancontribute to the best of their abilities and tasks can becompleted as expected. Technical and managerial communications– Good communications between group members, andbetween the software engineering team and other projectstakeholders, is essential.Chapter 22 Project management36
Selecting group members A manager or team leader’s job is to create acohesive group and organize their group sothat they can work together effectively. This involves creating a group with the rightbalance of technical skills and personalities,and organizing that group so that themembers work together effectively.Chapter 22 Project management37
Assembling a team May not be possible to appoint the ideal people to work on aproject– Project budget may not allow for the use of highly-paid staff;– Staff with the appropriate experience may not be available;– An organisation may wish to develop employee skills on a softwareproject. Managers have to work within these constraints especially whenthere are shortages of trained staff.Chapter 22 Project management38
Group composition Group composed of members who share thesame motivation can be problematic– Task-oriented - everyone wants to do their own thing;– Self-oriented - everyone wants to be the boss;– Interaction-oriented - too much chatting, not enough work. An effective group has a balance of all types. This can be difficult to achieve software engineers areoften task-oriented. Interaction-oriented people are very important as they candetect and defuse tensions that arise.Chapter 22 Project management39
Group compositionIn creating a group for assistive technology development, Alice is aware of theimportance of selecting members with complementary personalities. When interviewingpotential group members, she tried to assess whether they were task-oriented, selforiented, or interaction-oriented. She felt that she was primarily a self-oriented t
Software management is distinct from other engineering management. Software is intangible. Projects may be novel or innovative with no body of experience to guide their management. Software processes are not as mature as traditional engineering processes. Risk management is now recognized as one of the most important project management .
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