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Child Language

Child LanguageAcquisition and Development2nd EditionMatthew saxton

SAGE Publications Ltd1 Oliver’s Yard55 City RoadLondon EC1Y 1SPSAGE Publications Inc.2455 Teller RoadThousand Oaks, California 91320SAGE Publications India Pvt LtdB 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial AreaMathura RoadNew Delhi 110 044SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd3 Church Street#10-04 Samsung HubSingapore 049483 Matthew Saxton 2017First published 2010Reprinted 2010, 2011, 2012, 2015, 2016Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, orcriticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and PatentsAct, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in anyform, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of thepublishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance withthe terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiriesconcerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers.Library of Congress Control Number: 2016962661British Library Cataloguing in Publication dataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-4462-9561-8ISBN 978-1-4462-9562-5 (pbk)Editor: Luke BlockEditorial assistant: Lucy DangProduction editor: Imogen Roome

Copyeditor: Sarah BuryProofreader: Christine BittenIndexer: Martin HargreavesMarketing manager: Lucia SweetCover design: Wendy ScottTypeset by: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, IndiaPrinted in the UK

For Gary, Sue and AlexDrawing of Alex Saxton by Colin Saxton

ContentsAcknowledgementsPublisher’s AcknowledgementsNotes on the Organization of this BookCompanion Website page1 Prelude: Landmarks in the Landscape of Child LanguageFrom burping to grammar in the pre-school yearsLevels of languageListen in motherThe cat in the hat in the wombSome conclusions on soundWord learning: From 0 to 14,000 in five yearsSay ‘mama’Estimating vocabulary sizeThe gavagai problemMorphology: Bits and piecesSyntax: Putting it all togetherLanguage in context: Perceptual, cognitive and social developmentThe study of child languageThe lie of the land2 Can Animals Acquire Human Language? Shakespeare’s TypewriterWhat is language?The infinite monkey theoremLanguage, talk and communicationThe design of languageTeaching words to animalsTalking versus sign languageLexigramsBarking up the right tree: Word learning in dogsAlex, the non-parroting parrotAnimal grammarCombining wordsComprehension of spoken English by KanziThe linguistic limitations of animalsIs speech special?Categorical perception in infants and primatesStatistical learning

Back to grammar: Infants versus monkeysThe language faculty: Broad and narrow3 The Critical Period Hypothesis: Now or Never?What is a critical period?A musical interludeLenneberg’s critical period hypothesisDesigning research on critical periodsCats’ eyes: An example from animal developmentHow to identify a critical periodThe effects of linguistic deprivationThe royal prerogative: Experiments on peopleFeral childrenGenieDifferent critical periods for different aspects of languageA happier ending: The case of IsabelleConclusions from cases of deprivationAge of acquisition effects in second language learningEarly versus late starters: Effects on language outcomesAge effects may not be due to a critical periodPlastic fantastic: The receptive brainDeafness and late language learningTwo more cases of linguistic deprivation: Chelsea and E.M.Early versus late learning of American Sign Language4 Input and Interaction: Tutorials for ToddlersTalking to young childrenCharacteristics of Child Directed SpeechPhonologyVocabularyMorphology and syntaxA dynamic registerIndividual differences and their effectsChild Directed Speech: SummaryLack of interaction: Can children learn language from television?ImitationLinguistic creativity: Children make their own sentencesSkinner and Chomsky on imitationImitation as a mechanism in cognitive development

Imitation: Who, when and how?Individual differences in imitationCorrective inputRecasts: Adult repetition of the childThe ‘no negative evidence’ assumptionContrastive discourseNegative feedbackCorrective input: SummaryUniversality of CDSInput and interaction in language acquisition5 Language in the First Year: Breaking the Sound BarrierHunt the phonemeIn the beginningDrops of sound in a river of speechCategorical perceptionSpecialization towards the native languageWhy I don’t speak NthlakapmxLoss or decline?Enhancement of native contrastsIndividual differences in infant speech perceptionSummary: Breaking the speech sound barrierWord segmentationThe baby statisticianLearning in the real worldProsodic cues to speech segmentationRelative cue strengthGrammar from the babblePhonemes, words and grammar: Summary6 The Developing Lexicon: What’s in a Name?Approaches to word learningFirst wordsComprehension versus productionWhat do one-year-olds talk about?OverextensionCategorically wrongLexical plugs: Pragmatic errorsLosing it: Retrieval failures

Lexical processingUp, up and away: The vocabulary spurtWhy so fast?Spurt? What spurt?The rate of word learningTen words a day?Fast mappingSlow mapping: The gradual accretion of meaningBiasesThe return of the gavagai problemA noun bias in the child and in researchNouns are easyVerbs are hardThe shape biasThe rise and fall of word learning biasesAssociative learning: The origin of biases?Where do biases go?Some lexical gapsComputational modelling based on probability theory7 The Acquisition of Morphology: Linguistic LegoInflectionThe acquisition of inflectionWhole word learningThe past tense debate: Rules or connections?A dual-route account: Words and Rules theoryThe acquisition of words and rulesThe blocking hypothesisWords and Rules: The story so farConnectionism and a single-route accountProblems with connectionist modelsCrosslinguistic evidenceSummary: One route or two?Compounding and derivationDerivationCompoundingDerivation: The influence of productivityEarly compounds

Relating the parts to the whole in compoundsComplex compounds: Three processes combinedMorphology in the school yearsMorphological awarenessConnections with vocabulary, reading and spellingMorphological awareness in teachers8 Linguistic Nativism: To the Grammar BornUniversal GrammarThe problem of linguistic diversityCore versus peripheryParameters of variationSetting parameters: TriggersArguments for linguistic nativismSome initial observationsLimited exposure to linguistic inputNo direct instructionEase and speed of language acquisitionThe poverty of stimulus argumentPlato’s problemDegenerate inputNegative evidence: Corrective input for grammatical errorsKnowledge in the absence of experience: The case of structuredependenceThe origins of structure dependenceThe imitation of grammatical structuresEvidence from childrenPoverty of the stimulus: SummaryThe contents of UG: What precisely is innate?Conclusion9 The Usage-based Approach: Making it Up as You Go AlongLanguage knowledge from language useSocial cognitionDyadic and triadic interactionCollaborative engagement and intention-readingCollaborative engagement as a basis for languagedevelopmentEarly constructions: A route into grammar

In the beginning was the utteranceFrom single-unit to multi-unit speechDoes the child go from fully concrete to fully abstract?The productivity puzzleThe transitivity biasPattern findingType frequency: A route to productivitySounds familiar: The role of frequencyEarly productivity: Syntactic bootstrappingConstraining productivityConservative learningEntrenchmentPre-emptionSummary: Reining back on productivity10 You Say Nature, I Say Nurture: Better Call the Calling Off OffNature and nurture in the study of child languageThe genetic basis of language developmentIntegrating ‘nurture’ into theories of syntax acquisitionSome basic factsDietrich Tiedemann (1787)Child language: A timelineThe ‘nature’ in nature–nurture: Something must be innateLearning mechanismsDomain-general learning: How general?Linguistic nativism: The need for learning mechanismsMethodology: Limitations and possibilitiesLanguage acquisition: The state of the artChild language: Acquisition and developmentAnswers to ExercisesAppendix 1: Observations on Language Acquisition Made by DietrichTiedemann (1787)Appendix 2: Pronunciation Guide: English PhonemesGlossary of Linguistic TermsReferencesAuthor IndexSubject Index

AcknowledgementsI have had much help and encouragement in the writing – and updating – ofthis book from family, friends and former colleagues in academia. It has alsobeen gratifying to receive help from colleagues further afield, in the widerworld of child language research, many of whom I have yet to meet, but all ofwhom responded to my queries with considerable generosity of spirit. Inparticular, I should like to thank Ayhan Aksu-Koç, Shanley Allen, BenAmbridge, Misha Becker, Heike Behrens, Ruth Berman, Raymond Bertram,Joan Bybee, Robin Campbell, Shula Chiat, Anne Christophe, Alex Clark, EveClark, Gina Conti-Ramsden, Annick de Houwer, Holly Garwood, JonathanGinzburg, Roberta Golinkoff, Marisa Teresa Guasti, Bart Guerts, MargaretHarris, Maya Hickmann, Josephine Howard, Christine Howe, Dick Hudson,Jane Hurry, Evan Kidd, Sarah King, Mike Kirkman, Shalom Lappin, ElenaLieven, Brian MacWhinney, Michael Maratsos, Theo Marinis, ChloeMarshall, Cecile McKee, Evelyne Mercure, David Messer, Gary Morgan,Vicki Murphy, Letitia Naigles, Keith Nelson, David Olson, Mitsuhiko Ota,Anna Papafragou, Lisa Pearl, Colin Phillips, Li Ping, Dorit Ravid, MaritzaRivera Gaxiola, Stuart Rosen, Caroline Rowland, Jenny Saffran, ColinSaxton, Susan Sciama, Yasuhiro Shirai, Melanie Soderstrom, Morag Stuart,Mike Swan, Michael Tomasello, Michael Ullman, Angelika van Hout,Athena Vouloumanos, Catherine Walter, Dan Weiss and Charles Yang.Beyond the professional, there is the personal. My husband, Gary Yershon, isconstant in his support. My son, Alex – a grown man now – featuresthroughout the book with examples from a diary study I did with him duringmy doctoral studies. In the field of child language, it is not enough simply tobreed one’s own data. One needs also a son with a generous spirit who ishappy to share his early ventures into language with the wider world. Myfather, Colin Saxton, drew the picture of Alex as a newborn which features asthe frontispiece. And my mother, Josephine Howard, created the paintingwhich has been used for the book cover. Finally, friends, family andcolleagues make numerous appearances in these pages, embedded in theexamples of linguistic structures. To them all, I offer my heartfelt thanks.

Publisher’s AcknowledgementsThe author and publisher wish to thank the following for the permission touse copyright material:We thank APA for granting us permission to reproduce:Baillargeon, R. (1987). Object permanence in 3½-month-old and 4½-monthold infants. Developmental Psychology, 23(5), 655–664. Fig. 1, p. 656.Ganger, J. & Brent, M.R. (2004). Reexamining the vocabulary spurt.Developmental Psychology, 40(4), 621–632. Fig. 1. A spurtlike function(logistic) superimposed on slightly modified data from Child 041B (p. 623).Fig. 2. A nonspurtlike curve (quadratic) superimposed on the same datashown in Figure 1, p. 623.We thank Cambridge University Press for granting us permission toreproduce:Gershkoff-Stowe, L., Connell, B. & Smith, L. (2006). Primingovergeneralizations in two- and four-year-old children. Journal of ChildLanguage, 33(3), 461–486. Figure 1, p. 464. Levels of processing and lexicalcompetition involved in naming a perceived object.Dromi, E. (1987). Early lexical development. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. Figure 1, p. 111. Keren’s cumulative lexicon at the oneword stage.Bates, E. & Goodman, J.C. (1997, p. 517, Fig. 2) in E. Bates, I. Bretherton &L. Snyder (1988). From first words to grammar: Individual differences anddissociable mechanisms. New York: Cambridge University Press.Smith, L.B. (2001). How domain-general processes may create domainspecific biases. In M. Bowerman & S.C. Levinson (Eds.), Languageacquisition and conceptual development (pp. 101–131). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. Figure 4.1. Sample stimuli from Landau, Smith& Jones (1988). All stimuli were three-dimensional objects made of wood,wire, or sponge.We thank Elsevier for granting us permission to reproduce:A figure from Johnson, J.S. & Newport, E.L. (1989). Critical period effects insecond language learning: The influence of maturational state on theacquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21(1),60–99.Nicoladis, E. (2003). What compound nouns mean to preschool children.Brain and Language, 84(1), 38–49. Fig. 2. ‘Sun bag’ target for

comprehension, p. 43.Benasich, A.A., Choudhury, N., Friedman, J.T., Realpe-Bonilla, T.,Chojnowska, C. & Gou, Z.K. (2006). The infant as a prelinguistic model forlanguage learning impairments: Predicting from event-related potentials tobehavior. Neuropsychologia, 44(3), 396–411. Fig. 1. Photograph of a 6month-old child seated on his mother’s lap during an ERP testing sessionusing a dense array Geodesic Sensor Net system (Electric Geodesic, Inc.,Eugene, Oregon, USA), p. 399.We thank the Linguistic Society of America for granting us permission toreproduce Brooks, P.J. & Tomasello, M. (1999). How children constrain theirargument structure constructions. Language, 75(4), 720–738. Figure 1. Novel‘directed motion’ and ‘manner of motion’ verbs, p. 724.We thank MIT Press for granting us permission to reproduce Hirsh-Pasek, K.& Golinkoff, R.M. (1996). The origins of grammar: Evidence from earlylanguage comprehension, Figure 6.1, 1996 Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology, by permission of the MIT Press.We thank Wiley-Blackwell for granting us permission to reproduce:Gertner, Y., Fisher, C. & Eisengart, J. (2006). Learning words and rules:Abstract knowledge of word order in early sentence comprehension.Psychological Science, 17(8), 684–691. Figure 1, p. 686.Saffran, J.R. (2003). Statistical language learning: Mechanisms andconstraints. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(4), 110–114.Figure 1, p. 111.Fenson, L., Dale, P.S., Reznick, J.S., Bates, E., Thal, D.J. & Pethick, S.J.(1994). Variability in early communicative development. Monographs of theSociety for Research in Child Development, 59(5). Figure 1, p. 35 and Figure2, p. 38.

Notes on the Organization of this BookThis text is aimed principally at students of psychology with an interest inchild language. It is suitable for use at undergraduate level, and also atpostgraduate level, in cases where the field is new. In both cases, I am keenlyaware that most psychology students have no prior training in linguistictheory. In fact, if you’re like me – the member of a lost generation – you maynot even have learnt very much at all about language at school. For thisreason, I have tried to take nothing for granted as far as linguisticterminology is concerned, not even with common items like noun or verb. Ofcourse, you can always skip over the linguistic interludes, if it’s all old hat,and stick with the main event. Either way, the aim of this book is to equipyou to appreciate more fully the arguments and evidence advanced in thestudy of child language. The following menu of pedagogic features shouldsustain you on the journey ahead.Glossary of linguistic termsLinguistic terms are highlighted in bold to indicate their appearance inthe glossary, towards the end of the book. There you will finddefinitions of all things linguistic. You can test your knowledge ofterminology via the related website, where you will find eFlashcards tohelp you.Pronunciation guide: English phonemesA list of the special symbols used to represent the consonant and vowelsounds of English. And yes, the terms phoneme, consonant and vowel allfeature in the glossary.BoxesBoxes have been used for two kinds of diversion from the main text: (1)to expand on essential terminology from linguistic theory; and (2) toprovide extra information on key background concepts.References and further readingAs well as the list of references at the end of the book, I have ended eachchapter with a few suggestions for further reading. These latter areannotated with potted reviews and notes.Website addressesThe internet makes life easy for students in all kinds of ways. But withregard to reading material, articles found on the internet can beintrinsically unreliable. The crux of the matter is this: one cannot always

tell, with any certainty, who wrote a given internet article. Nor can onealways be sure if the claims made in internet sources are reasonable,valid, and backed up by reference to genuine and appropriate research.That said, many sources are perfectly respectable – as testified by theburgeoning number of electronic journals now available. I have been ascareful as I can in my listing of websites, but approach with caution. Ihave included the academic web pages of some key child languageresearchers, and these should be pretty reliable. In particular, manyacademics now post downloadable versions of research articles on theiruniversity homepages.Discussion pointsDiscussion points are sprinkled throughout the book wherever they seemlike a Good Thing. They can be used in seminars or in student self-studygroups (never tried the latter? – give them a go). For some of theDiscussion points, you should equip yourself by reading the relevantchapter in advance and/or reading an item from the Further Readingsection.Exercises on linguistic concepts (with answers)Like cod liver oil, linguistic exercises are unpalatable, but very good foryou. The idea is to limber up with some practice on unfamiliar concepts,before tackling the literature. Model answers are provided at the end ofthe book.PowerPoint slidesThese slides are intended for use by your lecturers. They fillet the mainpoints from each chapter, allowing room to expand on the main points inclassroom teaching sessions. But they could also quite easily be used forprivate study, as the basis for identifying key points for revision andreflection.Multiple choice questionsYou will find a set of MCQs for each chapter on the companion website.They will help sharpen your understanding of key concepts. Or maybethey’ll just reveal how lucky you are.Author indexFind your favourite authors, as mentioned in the text, and source theirwork in the list of references. Then challenge yourself to find otherwork, especially recent research, by the same authors (your universitylibrary will help if you’re new to the sport of Reference Hunting).

Subject indexSeparate from the author index, because it makes life a little lesscluttered. Relevant topics from each chapter are included to enhance thesum total of your learning happiness.

Companion Website pageThe second edition of Child Language is supported by a wealth of onlineresources for both students and lecturers to aid study and support teaching,which are available at https://study.sagepub.com/saxton2e.For studentsMultiple choice questions to test your knowledge of key concepts and makesure you have retained the most important parts of each chapter.Weblinks direct you to relevant resources to broaden your understanding ofchapter topics and link to real conversations about social research.Flashcard glossary so you can test yourself on all the key terms from thebook and check your understanding.For lecturersPowerPoint slides featuring figures, tables, and key topics from the book canbe downloaded and customized for use in your own presentations.

1 Prelude: Landmarks in the Landscape ofChild LanguageContentsFrom burping to grammar in the pre-school years 2Levels of language 4Listen in mother 5The cat in the hat in the womb 5Some conclusions on sound 7Word learning: From 0 to 14,000 in five years 7Say ‘mama’ 7Estimating vocabulary size 8The gavagai problem 9Morphology: Bits and piec

Child Language Acquisition and Development 2nd Edition Matthew saxton. SAGE Publications Ltd 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP SAGE Publications Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road New Delhi 110 044 SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd 3 Church Street #10-04 Samsung Hub .

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