Geosystems - Pearson

GeosystemsSuper Typhoon Haiyan made landfall in the central Philippines on the morning of November 7, 2013, with sustainedwinds over 306 km · h 1, the strongest ever recorded for a tropical cyclone at landfall using satellite measurements.In Geosystems, we discuss tropical cyclones and other severe weather events on Earth in Chapter 8. [NOAA ForecastSystems Laboratory.]A01 CHRI5521 04 CE FM.indd 116/02/15 10:54 PM

Tanquary Fjord, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada. [Wayne Lynch/Getty Images.]A01 CHRI5521 04 CE FM.indd 216/02/15 10:54 PM

An Introduction to Physical geographyGeosystemsFourth Canadian EditionRobert W. ChristophersonAmerican River College, EmeritusGinger H. BirkelandArizona State University, Ph.D.Mary-Louise ByrneWilfrid Laurier UniversityPhilip T. GilesSaint Mary’s UniversityTorontoA01 CHRI5521 04 CE FM.indd 316/02/15 10:54 PM

Vice-President, Cross Media & PublishingServices: Gary BennettEditorial Director: Claudine O’DonnellExecutive Acquisition Editor: Cathleen SullivanSr. Marketing Manager, Sciences: Kimberly TeskaManager of Content Development: Suzanne SchaanDevelopmental Editor: Katherine GoodesProgram Manager: Darryl KamoProject Manager: Sarah GallagherProduction Editor: Cindy SweeneyCopy Editor: Marcia YoungmanProofreader: Brooke GravesFull Service Vendor: S4Carlisle Publishing ServicesPermissions Project Manager: Kathryn O’HandleyPhoto Researcher: Divya Narayanan, LuminaDatamatics Ltd.Permissions Researcher: Tom Wilcox, LuminaDatamatics, IncCover Designer: Anthony LeungInterior Designer: Anthony LeungCover Image: S.J. Krasemann/Getty Images, Tributary toDuke River, Kluane Mountain Range, Kluane NationalPark, Yukon Territory, CanadaPrinter: Courier KendallvilleDedication page quote: Barbara Kingsolver, Small Wonder(New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2002), p. 39.Credits and acknowledgments for material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text.Original edition published by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. Copyright 2016 PearsonEducation, Inc. This edition is authorized for sale only in Canada.If you purchased this book outside the United States or Canada, you should be aware that it has been imported withoutthe approval of the publisher or the author.Copyright 2016, 2013, 2009, 2006, Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States ofAmerica. This publication is protected by copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to anyprohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written requestto Pearson Canada Inc., Permissions Department, 26 Prince Andrew Place, Don Mills, Ontario, M3C 2T8, or fax your requestto 416-447-3126, or submit a request to Permissions Requests at www.pearsoncanada.ca.10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in PublicationChristopherson, Robert W., author   Geosystems: an introduction to physical geography/Robert Christopherson,Mary-Louise Byrne, Philip Giles.—Fourth Canadian edition.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-13-340552-1 (bound)1. Physical geography—Textbooks. I. Byrne, Mary-Louise, 1961–, authorII. Giles, Philip Thomas, 1967–, author III. Title.GB54.5.C47 2015910′.02C2014-906527-2www.pearsoncanada.caA01 CHRI5521 04 CE FM.indd 4ISBN-13: 978-0-13-340552-116/02/15 10:54 PM

dedicationTo the students and teachers of Earth, andto all the children and grandchildren, for itis their future and home planet.The land still provides our genesis,however we might like to forget that ourfood comes from dank, muddy Earth, thatthe oxygen in our lungs was recentlyinside a leaf, and that every newspaperor book we may pick up is made from thehearts of trees that died for the sake ofour imagined lives. What you hold in yourhands right now, beneath these words, isconsecrated air and time and sunlight.—Barbara KingsolverEnvironmental StatementThis book is carefully crafted to minimize environmental impact. Pearson Canada is proud to report that the materialsused to manufacture this book originated from sources committed to sustainable forestry practices, tree harvesting,and associated land management. The binding, cover, and paper come from facilities that minimize waste, energy usage,and the use of harmful chemicals.Equally important, Pearson Canada closes the loop by recycling every out-of-date text returned to our warehouse. Wepulp the books, and the pulp is used to produce other items such as paper coffee cups or shopping bags.The future holds great promise for reducing our impact on Earth’s environment, and Pearson Canada is proud to beleading the way in this initiative. From production of the book to putting a copy in your hands, we strive to publish the bestbooks with the most up-to-date and accurate content, and to do so in ways that minimize our impact on Earth.A01 CHRI5521 04 CE FM.indd 516/02/15 10:54 PM

brief contents1Essentials of Geography2Part I The Energy–Atmosphere System   4023456Solar Energy to Earth and the Seasons   42Earth’s Modern Atmosphere   64Atmosphere and Surface Energy Balances   90Global Temperatures   116Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulations   142Part Ii  The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems  1787891011Water and Atmospheric Moisture   180Weather  206Water Resources   240Global Climate Systems   274Climate Change   306Part Iii The Earth–Atmosphere Interface  344121314151617The Dynamic Planet   346Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanism   382Weathering, Karst Landscapes, and Mass Movement   422River Systems   452Oceans, Coastal Systems, and Wind Processes   490Glacial and Periglacial Landscapes   532Part Iv Soils, Ecosystems, and Biomes  56818 The Geography of Soils   57019 Ecosystem Essentials   60420 Terrestrial Biomes   640Appendix AAppendix BAppendix CAppendix DA01 CHRI5521 04 CE FM.indd 6Maps in This Text and Topographic Maps   A-1The 12 Soil Orders of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy   A-6The Köppen Climate Classification System   A-10Common Conversions  A-1316/02/15 10:54 PM

contentsPreface  xviiiDigital and Print Resources xxiiBook and MasteringGeographyWalkthrough xxiiLocation and Time on t Circles and Small Circles   23Meridians and Global Time   23Maps and Cartography  25The Scale of Maps   26Map Projections   261 Essentials of Geography   2Key Learning concepts  2GEOSYSTEMS now Canada’s Borders, Not Just LinesModern Tools and Techniques for Geoscience  30Global Positioning System   30Remote Sensing   31Geographic Information Systems   33Geosystems connection  37Key Learning conceptsreview  37geosystems in action 1 Exploring Earth Systems   16on a Map  3Critical Thinking 1.1 What Is Your Footprint?   11The Science of Geography  5The Geographic Continuum   7Geographic Analysis   7The Scientific Process   7Human–Earth Interactions in the 21st Century   8Critical Thinking 1.2 Latitudinal Geographic Zonesand Temperature   21Earth Systems Concepts 11Systems Theory   11Systems Organization in Geosystems  14Earth’s Dimensions   19Critical Thinking 1.3 Where Are You?   23Critical Thinking 1.4 Find and Compare Map Scales   26Critical Thinking 1.5 Test Your Knowledge aboutSatellite Imagery   34A QuantitativeSOLUTION: Map Scales   36GEO reports: 7 reportsPart I The Energy–Atmosphere System  40Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth   45Solar Activity and Solar Wind   46Electromagnetic Spectrum of Radiant Energy   47Incoming Energy at the Top of the Atmosphere   492 Solar Energy to Earthand the Seasons   42Key Learning concepts  42GEOSYSTEMS now Chasing the Subsolar Point  43The Solar System, Sun, and Earth   44Solar System Formation   45Dimensions and Distances   45A01 CHRI5521 04 CE FM.indd 7The Seasons   51Seasonality  52Reasons for Seasons   52Annual March of the Seasons   55Geosystems connection  60Key Learning conceptsreview  61geosystems in action 2 Earth–Sun Relations  56Critical Thinking 2.1 A Way to Calculate Sunriseand Sunset   52Critical Thinking 2.2 Astronomical Factors Vary overLong Time Frames   5416/02/15 10:54 PM

viiiGeosystemsCritical Thinking 2.3 Use the Analemma to Findthe Subsolar Point   58A QuantitativeSOLUTION: Radiation and Temperature   60ThehumanDenominator2: Solar Energy and the Seasons   59GEO reports: 4 reportsvisual analysis2: Dryland Agriculture   63Anthropogenic Pollution   76Natural Factors That Affect Pollutants   80Benefits of the Clean Air Act   81Geosystemsconnection  85Key Learning conceptsreview  87geosystems in action 3 Air Pollution  82Focus Study 3.1 Pollution   743 Earth’s Modern Atmosphere   64Focus Study 3.2 Pollution   78Key Learning concepts  64Critical Thinking 3.1 Where Is Your Tropopause?   71GEOSYSTEMS now Humans Explore the Atmosphere   65Critical Thinking 3.2 Finding Your Local Ozone   72Atmospheric Composition, Temperature,and Function   66Atmospheric Profile   66Atmospheric Composition Criterion   67Atmospheric Temperature Criterion   69Atmospheric Function Criterion   71Critical Thinking 3.3 Evaluating Costs and Benefits   84The humanDenominator3: The Shared Global Atmosphere   85A QuantitativeSOLUTION: Lapse Rates   86visual analysis3: The Atmosphere and Inversion Layers   89GEO reports: 5 reportsPollutants in the Atmosphere   73Natural Sources of Air Pollution   73Energy Balance at Earth’s Surface   103Daily Radiation Patterns   103A Simplified Surface Energy Budget   104The Urban Environment   107Geosystemsconnection  112Key Learning conceptsreview  113geosystems in action 4 Earth–Atmosphere Energy B alance   100Focus Study 4.1 Sustainable Resources   1084 Atmosphere and Surface EnergyBalances  90Key Learning concepts  90GEOSYSTEMS now Melting Sea Ice Opens Arctic ShippingLanes, However . . .  91Energy-Balance Essentials   92Energy and Heat   92Energy Pathways and Principles   94Energy Balance in the Troposphere   98The Greenhouse Effect and Atmospheric Warming   98Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance   99A01 CHRI5521 04 CE FM.indd 8Critical Thinking 4.1 A Kelp Indicator of SurfaceEnergy Dynamics   102Critical Thinking 4.2 Applying Energy-Balance Principles to a Solar Cooker   105Critical Thinking 4.3 Looking at Your SurfaceEnergy Budget   111The humanDenominator4: Changes in Atmosphericand Surface Energy Budgets   112A QuantitativeSOLUTION: Zero-Dimensional Global EnergyBalance Model   113GEO reports: 3 reports16/02/15 10:54 PM