Blockchain And Cryptocurrency Regulation 2020, Second Edition
Blockchain andcryptocurrencyregulation 2020,second edition
ContentsBermudaBritish Virgin IslandsCayman IslandsGuernseyJerseyOur officesAt Carey Olsen, we always look at the bigger picture. In the face ofopportunities or challenges, our clients know that the advice andguidance they receive from us will be based on a completeunderstanding of their goals and objectives combined with outstandingclient service, technical excellence and commercial insight.BIGGER PICTUREBlockchain and cryptocurrency regulation 2019, first edition 1
Bermudablockchain andcryptocurrencyregulation 2020,second edition
Government attitude and definitionDigital Asset Business ActThe current Bermuda government was elected in 2017 havingundertaken to create new economic pillars in Bermuda,identify new opportunities for economic diversification, andseek local and overseas investment to develop new localindustry and thereby create jobs in Bermuda. Since its election,it has enthusiastically embraced the financial technology(“fintech”) sector and the potential it offers, and has repeatedlyexpressed its intention for Bermuda to be a significant centrefor this industry.The Digital Asset Business Act (the “DABA”) came into force inSeptember 2018. Since the DABA’s enactment, the BMA haspromulgated rules, regulations, codes of practice, statementsof principles and guidance in order to supplement the DABA,with the result that the DABA operates in a similar manner tothe regulatory frameworks in place for other financial servicesregulated by the BMA.In furtherance of this goal, the government has implemented acomprehensive regulatory regime aimed at providing legalcertainty to industry participants and ensuring that business inthe sector conducted in or from Bermuda is done in a properlyregulated matter, in accordance with the highest internationalstandards. This regulatory regime is described in more detailbelow, but, in summary: the Digital Asset Business Act comprises a regulatoryframework for fintech businesses operating in or fromBermuda; and although not covered by the Digital Asset Business Act, initialcoin and security token offerings are regulated under aseparate regime.The government has also announced that fintech businesseswishing to set up in Bermuda are to benefit from a relaxedwork permit policy, offers through the Bermuda BusinessDevelopment Agency a concierge service for businesseswishing to establish operations on the island, and has signed anumber of memoranda of understanding with fintechbusinesses, under which these businesses have committed toestablishing operations and creating jobs in Bermuda.Although digital asset offerings and businesses are regulatedin the manner described in this article, there is no legislation orother provision of Bermuda law affording official or legalrecognition of any cryptocurrency or any other digital asset, orconferring equivalent status with any fiat currency. Nor has thegovernment or the Bermuda Monetary Authority (the “BMA”),the jurisdiction’s financial regulator and issuer of its nationalcurrency, backed any cryptocurrency itself, and the Bermudadollar remains the territory’s legal tender.Cryptocurrency regulationWhile both the Bermuda government and the BMA are onrecord as being keen to embrace the potential offered byfintech, both recognise that the industry presents tremendousrisk, requiring prudent regulation. Bermuda has, accordingly,led the way in introducing a regulatory framework for digitalasset business and coin and token offerings.In summary, the DABA specifies the digital asset-relatedactivities to which it applies, imposes a licensing requirementon any person carrying on any of those activities, lays out thecriteria a person must meet before it can obtain a licence,imposes (and permits the BMA to impose) certain continuingobligations on any holder of a licence, and grants to the BMAsupervisory and enforcement powers over regulated digitalasset businesses.At the time of writing, the BMA was engaged in a consultationexercise with a view to amending certain provisions of theDABA to give greater clarity to certain sections and to makeother changes that are intended to facilitate more effectiveadministration of its provisions.Scope of the DABAThe DABA applies to any entity incorporated or formed inBermuda and carrying on digital asset business (irrespectiveof the location from which the activity is carried out) and toany entity incorporated or formed outside of Bermuda andcarrying on digital asset business in or from within Bermuda.The term “digital asset” in the legislation is defined widelyenough to capture cryptocurrencies, representations of debt orequity in the promoter, representations of other rightsassociated with such assets, and other representations of valuethat are intended to provide access to an application orservice or product by means of distributed ledger technology.“Digital asset business”, for the purposes of the DABA, is theprovision of the following activities to the general public as abusiness: Issuing, selling or redeeming virtual coins, tokens or anyother form of digital assetThis is intended to regulate any business providing theseservices to other businesses or to individuals. It does notinclude initial coin offerings or security token offerings(collectively, “ICOs”) to fund the issuer’s or promoter’s ownbusiness or project. Instead, ICOs are regulated under aseparate regime, on which see below.Blockchain and cryptocurrency regulation 2019, first edition 3
Operating as a payment service provider business utilisingdigital assets, which includes the provision of services forthe transfer of fundsThe term “payment service provider” is used globally in antimoney laundering and anti-terrorist financing (“AML/ATF”)laws, regulations and guidance, and is defined in Bermuda’sProceeds of Crime (Anti-Money Laundering and AntiTerrorist Financing) Amendment Regulations 2010 as “aperson whose business includes the provision of services forthe transfer of funds”. The aim here is to ensure thatbusinesses involved in the transfer of digital assets fall withinthe DABA’s ambit. Operating as an electronic exchangeThis category captures online exchanges allowingcustomers to buy and sell digital assets, whether paymentsare made in fiat currency, bank credit or in another form ofdigital asset. Exchanges facilitating the offer of new coins ortokens through ICOs are also caught. Providing custodial wallet servicesThis covers any business whose services include storing ormaintaining digital assets or a virtual wallet on behalf of aclient. Operating as a digital asset services vendorThis category regulates a person that, under an agreementas part of its business, can undertake a digital assettransaction on behalf of another person or has power ofattorney over another person’s digital asset, or a personwho operates as a market-maker for digital assets. It isintended to capture any other business providing specificdigital asset-related services to the public, such as operatingas a custodian of digital assets.In addition to the above categories, the DABA includes anoption for the Minister of Finance, after consultation with theBMA, to be able to add new categories or to amend, suspendor delete any of the categories listed above by order.The DABA specifically provides that the following activities shallnot constitute digital asset business: contributing connectivity software or computing power to adecentralised digital asset, or to a protocol governingtransfer of the digital representation of value (this categoryexempts mining from the DABA’s scope); providing data storage or security services for a digital assetbusiness, so long as the enterprise is not otherwise engagedin digital asset business activity on behalf of other persons;and the provision of any digital asset business activity by anundertaking solely for the purpose of its business operationsor the business operations of any of its subsidiaries.4 Blockchain and cryptocurrency regulation 2019, first editionLicensing requirementThe DABA requires persons carrying on digital asset businessto obtain a licence before doing so, unless that person issubject to an exemption order issued by the Minister ofFinance. At the time of writing, the Minister had not issued orproposed any exemption orders.Two classes of licence are available for applicants: The Class M licence is a restricted form of “sandbox” licence,with modified requirements and certain restrictions, andvalid for a specified period, the duration of which will bedetermined by the BMA on a case-by-case basis. Followingthe expiry of this specified period, it is generally expectedthat the licensee will either have to apply for a Class FLicence (as described in further detail below) or ceasecarrying on business, although the BMA will have discretionto extend the specified period. The Class F licence is a full licence not subject to anyspecified period, although it may still be subject torestrictions the BMA may deem appropriate in any givencase.The intention behind this tiered licensing regime is to allowstart-ups engaging in digital asset business to do so in aproperly supervised regulatory environment, and to engage inproof of concept and develop some sort of track record beforeobtaining a full licence. The restrictions to which a licensee willbe subject will depend on the business model of theprospective licensee (and the risks associated with it), but willalmost invariably include an obligation to disclose toprospective customers the fact that the licensee holds a ClassM licence and certain limitations on the volume of business thelicensee is permitted to conduct, along with other restrictionsas the BMA may deem necessary or appropriate on a caseby-case basis.A prospective licensee may not necessarily receive the licencefor which it applies: an applicant for a Class F licence mayreceive a Class M licence if the BMA decides that a Class Mlicence would be more appropriate in the circumstances. Alicence will further specify the category (or categories) ofdigital asset business in which the licensee is permitted toengage.Carrying on digital asset business without a licence is acriminal offence punishable by a fine of up to US 250,000,imprisonment for a term of up to five years, or both.
Criteria to be met by licenseesThe DABA provides that the BMA may not issue any licenceunless it is satisfied that the applicant fulfils certain minimumcriteria addressing the fitness and propriety of directors andofficers, ensuring business is conducted in a prudent manner,the integrity and skill of the business’s management, andstandards of corporate governance observed by the(prospective) licensee. This is consistent with the position underother regulatory laws applicable to other sectors and isintended to ensure the BMA maintains high standards for theconduct of regulated business. The BMA has also published acode of practice detailing requirements as to, inter alia,governance, risk management and internal controls applicableto licensees. The BMA recognises, however, that licensees havevarying risk profiles arising from the nature, scale andcomplexity of the business, so assesses a licensee’s compliancewith this code in a proportionate manner relative to thebusiness’s nature, scale and complexity.The DABA requires licensees to notify the BMA upon changesin directors or officers, and the BMA has powers to, inter alia,object to and prevent new or increased ownership ofshareholder controllers and the power to remove controllers,directors and officers who are no longer fit and proper to carryon their role.Continuing obligations of licence holdersPersons holding a licence issued under the DABA are subject toseveral ongoing obligations.Client disclosure rules: the BMA has used powers conferred toit under the DABA to promulgate the Digital Asset Business(Client Disclosure) Rules 2018 in order to mitigate the highdegree of risk for consumers owing to the highly speculativeand volatile nature of digital assets. These rules requirelicensees, before entering into any business relationship with acustomer, to disclose to that customer: the class of licence itholds; a schedule of its fees and the manner in which fees willbe calculated if not set in advance; whether it has insuranceagainst loss of customer assets arising from theft (includingcybertheft); the extent to which a transfer or exchange ofdigital assets is irrevocable and any exceptions; governance orvoting rights regarding client assets if the licensee is to holdclient assets; the extent to which it will be liable for anunauthorised, mistaken or accidental transfer or exchange;and sundry other matters. The rules also oblige licensees toconfirm certain information regarding transactions with clientsat the conclusion of each such transaction.Cybersecurity Rules: alongside the client disclosure rulesdescribed above, the BMA has promulgated the Digital AssetBusiness (Cybersecurity) Rules 2018 (the “Cybersecurity Rules”).Under the Cybersecurity Rules, licensees must file an annualcybersecurity report prepared by its chief information securityofficer assessing the availability, functionality and integrity ofits electronic systems, any identified cyber-risk arising from anydigital asset business carried on or to be carried on by thelicensee, and the cybersecurity programme implemented andproposals for steps for the redress of any inadequaciesidentified.The cybersecurity programme itself must include (but is notlimited to) the following audit functions: penetration testing of its electronic systems and vulnerabilityassessment of those systems conducted at least on aquarterly basis; and audit trail systems that:– track and maintain data that allows for the completeand accurate reconstruction of all financial transactionsand accounting;– protect the integrity of data stored and maintained as apart of the audit trail from alteration or tampering;– protect the integrity of hardware from alteration ortampering, including by limiting electronic and physicalaccess permissions to hardware and maintaining logs ofphysical access to hardware that allows for eventreconstruction;– log system events including but not limited to access andalterations made to the audit trail systems, andcybersecurity events; and– maintain records produced as part of the audit trail.Licensees must engage a qualified independent party to auditits systems and provide a written opinion to the BMA that thecybersecurity programme and controls are suitably designedand operative effectively to meet the requirements of theCybersecurity Rules and applicable codes of practice.Custody and protection of consumer assets: licensees holdingclient assets are required to have in place and maintain asurety bond, trust account or indemnity insurance for thebenefit of their customers. Any such trust account must bemaintained with a “qualified custodian”, which the DABAdefines as a licensed Bermuda bank or trust company or anyother person recognised by the BMA for this purpose. Alicensee is, in addition, required to maintain books of accountand other records sufficient to ensure that customer assets arekept segregated from those of the licensee and can beidentified at any time. All customer funds must be held in adedicated separate account and clearly identified as such.Blockchain and cryptocurrency regulation 2019, first edition 5
Senior representative: the DABA imposes an obligation onlicensees to appoint a senior representative, to be approvedby the BMA, who must be resident in Bermuda and who issufficiently knowledgeable about both the licensee itself andthe industry in general. This senior representative will himselfbe under a duty to report to the BMA certain significantmatters, including: a likelihood of the licensee becominginsolvent; breaches by the licensee of any conditions imposedby the BMA; involvement of the licensee in criminalproceedings, whether in Bermuda or elsewhere; and othermaterial developments.Head office: the DABA also requires licensees to maintain ahead office in Bermuda and to direct and manage their digitalasset business from Bermuda. The relevant section goes on tolist a number of factors the BMA shall consider in determiningwhether a licensee satisfies this requirement, together with anumber of additional factors to which the BMA may (but neednot) have regard.Annual prudential return: a licensee is obliged to file with theBMA an annual prudential return, with the BMA being grantedthe power to require more frequent filings or additions to afiling if required in the interest of consumer protection. Theannual prudential return should be accompanied by a copy ofthe licensee’s audited financial statements and business planfor the following year, and include information relating to, interalia, business strategy and risk appetite, products and services,the number, risk rating and geographical profile of customeraccounts, information on risk and cybersecurity (including arisk self-assessment and policies in these areas), AML/ATFcontrols, corporate governance, audited financial statementsand details on any outsourcing to third parties.BMA’s supervision and enforcement powersThe DABA grants the BMA wide-ranging powers of supervisionand enforcement.It will have the power to compel production of information anddocuments (with criminal sanctions for non-production or formaking false or misleading statements), the power to issuesuch directions as appear to be desirable to it for safeguardingthe interests of a licensee’s clients where a licensee is in breachof the DABA or regulations or rules applicable to it, and thepower to impose conditions and restrictions on licences. Forexample, the BMA may: require a licensee to take certain steps or to refrain fromadopting or pursuing a particular course of action, or torestrict the scope of its business activities in a particular way; impose limitations on the acceptance of business; prohibit a licensee from soliciting business, either generallyor from prospective clients;6 Blockchain and cryptocurrency regulation 2019, first edition prohibit a licensee from entering into any other transactionsor class of transactions; require the removal of any officer or controller; and/or specify requirements to be fulfilled otherwise than by actiontaken by the licensee.In more extreme cases, the BMA may revoke a licencealtogether and, if it so elects, subsequently petition the courtfor the entity whose licence it has revoked to be wound up.In the event a licensee fails to comply with a condition,restriction or direction imposed by the BMA or with certainrequirements of the DABA, the BMA has the power to imposefines of up to US 10,000,000. Alternatively, it may issue a publiccensure (“naming and shaming”), issue a prohibition orderbanning a person from performing certain functions for aBermuda regulated entity, or obtain an injunction from thecourt. The BMA will use these enforcement powers in amanner consistent with the Statement of Principles andGuidance on the Exercise of Enforcement Powers it publishedin September 2018, which contains general guidanceapplicable to all regulated sectors on the BMA’s approach tothe use of its enforcement powers and the factors it willconsider in assessing whether to exercise those powers.ICO regulationAs noted above, the DABA does not apply to any ICO intendedto finance the issuer’s or promoter’s own business. Instead, theCompanies Act 1981 and the Limited Liability Company Act2016 (collectively, the “Company Legislation”) were amendedin 2018 to include a regulatory framework for ICOs.The Company Legislation defines an ICO as an offer by acompany or a limited liability company (a “LLC”) to the publicto purchase or otherwise acquire digital assets and designatesany ICO as a “restricted business activity”, requiring consentfrom the Minister of Finance before any ICO may be made tothe pub
include initial coin offerings or security token offerings (collectively, “ICOs”) to fund the issuer’s or promoter’s own business or project. Instead, ICOs are regulated under a separate regime, on which see below. Blockchain and cryptocurrency regulation 2019, first edition 3
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