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General BiologyWikibooks.org

March 15, 2013On the 28th of April 2012 the contents of the English as well as German Wikibooks and Wikipediaprojects were licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license. AnURI to this license is given in the list of figures on page 175. If this document is a derived workfrom the contents of one of these projects and the content was still licensed by the project underthis license at the time of derivation this document has to be licensed under the same, a similar or acompatible license, as stated in section 4b of the license. The list of contributors is included in chapterContributors on page 169. The licenses GPL, LGPL and GFDL are included in chapter Licenses onpage 179, since this book and/or parts of it may or may not be licensed under one or more of theselicenses, and thus require inclusion of these licenses. The licenses of the figures are given in the list offigures on page 175. This PDF was generated by the LATEX typesetting software. The LATEX sourcecode is included as an attachment (source.7z.txt) in this PDF file. To extract the source from thePDF file, we recommend the use of /utility or clicking the paper clip attachment symbol on the lower left of your PDF Viewer, selectingSave Attachment. After extracting it from the PDF file you have to rename it to source.7z. Touncompress the resulting archive we recommend the use of http://www.7-zip.org/. The LATEXsource itself was generated by a program written by Dirk Hünniger, which is freely available underan open source license from http://de.wikibooks.org/wiki/Benutzer:Dirk Huenniger/wb2pdf.This distribution also contains a configured version of the pdflatex compiler with all necessarypackages and fonts needed to compile the LATEX source included in this PDF file.

Contents1Getting Started2Biology - The Life Science2.1 Characteristics of life . .2.2 Nature of science . . . .2.3 Scientific method . . . .2.4 Charles Darwin . . . . .2.5 After Darwin . . . . . .2.6 Challenges to Darwin . .55669910The3.13.23.33.43.53.63.7Nature of MoleculesMatter . . . . . . . . .The atom . . . . . . .Mass and isotopes . .Electrons . . . . . . .Chemical bonds . . . .Chemical reactions . .Water . . . . . . . . .1111111212131313The4.14.24.34.44.54.6Chemical Building Blocks of LifeCarbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . .Stereoisomers . . . . . . . . . . . . .Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hereditary (Genetic) information . .345Life:5.15.25.35.45.55.65.73.History and OriginProperties of life . . . . . . . .Origin of life: 3 hypotheses . .The early earth . . . . . . . . .Origin of cells . . . . . . . . . .The RNA world? . . . . . . . .The earliest cells . . . . . . . .Major steps in evolution of life.15151516161618.19191920212121226Cells237Cell structure7.1 What is a cell? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2 History of cell knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252529III

Contents7.37.48Microscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cell size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3131323234343435Membranes9.1Biological membranes . . . . .9.2Phospholipid . . . . . . . . . .9.3Fluid mosaic model . . . . . . .9.4Membrane proteins . . . . . . .9.5Receptor-mediated endocytosis.37373838384010 Cell-cell interactions10.1 Cell signaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10.2 Communicating junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41414211 Energy and Metabolism11.1 Energy . . . . . . . . .11.2 Oxidation–Reduction .11.3 NAD . . . . . . . . .11.4 Free energy . . . . . .11.5 Enzymes . . . . . . . .11.6 ATP . . . . . . . . . .11.7 Biochemical pathways9Structure of Eukaryotic cells8.1Structure of the nucleus .8.2Chromatin . . . . . . . . .8.3Endoplasmic reticulum . .8.4The Golgi apparatus . . .8.5Ribosomes . . . . . . . . .8.6DNA-containing organelles8.7Cytoskeleton . . . . . . .3030.434343444444464612 Respiration: harvesting of energy12.1 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12.2 Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . .12.3 Respiration of glucose . . . . . .12.4 Alternative anaerobic respiration12.5 Glycolysis overview . . . . . . . .12.6 Regeneration of NAD . . . . . .12.7 Alcohol fermentation . . . . . . .12.8 Lactate formation . . . . . . . . .12.9 Krebs cycle: overview . . . . . .12.10 ATP production . . . . . . . . . .12.11 Evolution of aerobic respiration .47474747474848484849494913 Photosynthesis13.1 Light Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13.2 “Dark” reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13.3 Prokaryote cell division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51515353IV.

1313.1413.1513.1613.17Bacterial DNA replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chromosome number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Eukaryotic chromosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chromosome organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Human karyotype stained by chromosome paintingChromosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Human chromosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mitotic cell cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Replicated human chromosomes . . . . . . . . . . .Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Plant mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Controlling the cell cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mutations and cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 Sexual reproduction14.1 Sexual . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.2 Sexual life cycle . . . . . . . .14.3 Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . .14.4 Prophase I: synapsis . . . . .14.5 Crossing over . . . . . . . . .14.6 Microtubules and anaphase I14.7 Meiosis II . . . . . . . . . . .14.8 Evolution of sex . . . . . . . .14.9 Consequences of sex . . . . 15 Genetics6316 Gregor Mendel and biological inheritance16.1 Mendel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.2 Mendel’s experiments . . . . . . . . . . . .16.3 Mendel’s seven pairs of traits . . . . . . .16.4 Locus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.5 Modern Y chromosome . . . . . . . . . . .16.6 Chromosome phenomena . . . . . . . . . .16.7 X-chromosome inactivation . . . . . . . .16.8 Barr body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.9 Human genetic disorders . . . . . . . . . .6565666666676767676717 DNA: The Genetic Material17.1 DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . .17.2 Historical perspective . . . .17.3 Hershey-Chase Experiment17.4 DNA/RNA components . .17.5 Chemical structure of DNA17.6 3D structure of DNA . . . .17.7 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . .17.8 DNA replication . . . . . .696969697070707071.V

Contents17.917.1017.1117.1217.1317.1417.1517.16DNA replication . . . . .DNA polymerases . . . . .DNA replication complexDNA replication . . . . .DNA replication fork . . .Replication units . . . . .Replicon . . . . . . . . . .What is gene? . . . . . . .717172727272727218 Gene expression18.1 “Central Dogma” . . . . .18.2 The Genetic Code . . . .18.3 Transcription . . . . . . .18.4 Transcription bubble . . .18.5 Eukaryote mRNA . . . . .18.6 Translation . . . . . . . .18.7 Translation in bacteria . .18.8 Aminoacyl tRNA synthase18.9 Ribosome structure . . . .18.10 Large ribosome subunit .18.11 Translation . . . . . . . .18.12 Initiation complex . . . .18.13 Elongation, translocation .18.14 Introns/exons . . . . . . .75757575767676767777777777777719 Gene regulation19.1 Transcriptional control19.2 DNA grooves . . . . .19.3 Regulatory proteins . .19.4 Lac operon of E. coli .19.5 Alternative splicing . .79797980808020 Mutation20.1 Point Mutations . . . . . . . . . .20.2 Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . .20.3 Larger mutations . . . . . . . . .20.4 Chromosomal mutations . . . . .20.5 Causes of mutations . . . . . . .20.6 Effects of mutations . . . . . . .20.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . .20.8 Original notes . . . . . . . . . . .20.9 Point mutation . . . . . . . . . .20.10 Acquisition of genetic variability20.11 Eukaryote genome . . . . . . . .20.12 Barbara McClintock . . . . . . .8181818282828283838484848521 Recombinant DNA technology21.1 Recombinant DNA technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8787VI.

21.1221.13Restriction endonucleases . . . .Restriction endonucleases . . . .Uses of cloned gene . . . . . . . .Other molecular procedures . . .RFLP(restriction fragment lengthSanger DNA sequencing . . . . .Automated sequencing . . . . . .Genome projects . . . . . . . . .Biochips . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DNA chip controversies . . . . .Gene patenting . . . . . . . . . .Stem cells . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Classification of Living Things22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . .22.2 Viral Replication . . . . . . . .22.3 Viral Genome . . . . . . . . . .22.4 Viruses Practice Questions . . .22.5 Archaea . . . . . . . . . . . . .22.6 Prokaryote evolution . . . . . .22.7 Domains of life: characteristics22.8 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . .22.9 Classification of Protists . . . .22.10 Protozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . .22.11 Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22.12 Slime molds & Water molds . .22.13 Protists Practice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .polymorphism). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110110210310423 Multicellular Photosynthetic Autotrophs23.1 Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.2 Plant phyla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.3 Plant evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.4 Plant phylogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.5 Plant life cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.6 Moss life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.7 Vascular plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.8 Vascular plant life cycles . . . . . . . . .23.9 Pterophyta (ferns) . . . . . . . . . . . .23.10 Non-seed plants, continued . . . . . . . .23.11 Seed plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.12 Sporophyte/gametophyte . . . . . . . .23.13 Megasporangium (nucellus) . . . . . . .23.14 Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.15 Gymnosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.16 Pine life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.17 Other Coniferophyta . . . . . . . . . . .23.18 Other gymnosperms . . . . . . . . . . .23.19 Angiosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10110111111.VII

.3823.3923.40Earliest angiosperm . . . . . .Angiosperm flower . . . . . .Angiosperm life cycle . . . . .Introduction . . . . . . . . . .Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . .Fungal Reproduction . . . . .Types of Fungi . . . . . . . .Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . .Introduction . . . . . . . . . .Characteristics of an Animal .Introduction to animal phylaPhylum Porifera . . . . . . .Phylum Cnidaria . . . . . . .Phylum Platyhelminthes . . .Phylum Rotifera . . . . . . .Phylum Nematoda . . . . . .Phylum Annelida . . . . . . .Phylum Arthropoda . . . . .Phylum Mollusca . . . . . . .Phylum Echinodermata . . .Phylum Chordata . . . . . . .24 Chordates24.1 Characteristics . . . . . . . .24.2 Subphylum Urochordata . . .24.3 Subphylum Cephalochordata24.4 Subphylum Vertebrata . . . 22123124124125.12712712712812825 Tissues and Systems13526 Epithelial tissue13727 Connective tissue13928 Muscle tissue14329 Vertebrate digestive system14730 Circulatory system15131 Respiratory system31.1 Neuron structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31.2 Central nervous system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31.3 Peripheral nervous system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15515615715732 Sensory systems15932.1 Taste and smell (chemoreception) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15932.2 Response to gravity and movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15932.3 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160VIII

Contents32.432.5Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160Osmotic environments and regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16133 Additional material16533.1 External Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16634 Glossary16734.1 Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16835 Contributors169List of Figures17536 Licenses17936.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17936.2 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18036.3 GNU Lesser General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811

1 Getting Started3

2 Biology - The Life ScienceThe word biology means, "the science of life", from the Greek bios, life, and logos, wordor knowledge. Therefore, Biology is the science of Living Things. That is why Biology issometimes known as Life Science.The science has been divided into many subdisciplines, such as botany1 , bacteriology,anatomy2 , zoology, histology, mycology, embryology, parasitology, genetics3 , molecular biology4 , systematics, immunology, microbiology5 , physiology, cell biology6 , cytology, ecology7 ,and virology. Other branches of science include or are comprised in part of biology studies,including paleontology8 , taxonomy, evolution, phycology, helimentology, protozoology, entomology, biochemistry, biophysics, biomathematics, bio engineering, bio climatology andanthropology.2.1 Characteristics of lifeNot all scientists agree on the definition of just what makes up life. Various characteristicsdescribe most living things. However, with most of the characteristics listed below we canthink of one or more examples that would seem to break the rule, with something nonlivingbeing classified as living or something living classified as nonliving. Therefore we are carefulnot to be too dogmatic in our attempt to explain which things are living or nonliving. Living things are composed of matter structured in an orderly way where simplemolecules are ordered together into much larger macromolecules.An easy way to remember this is GRIMNERD C All organisms; - Grow, Respire, Interact,Move, Need Nutrients, Excrete (Waste), Reproduce,Death, Cells (Made of) Living things are sensitive, meaning they are able to respond to stimuli. Living things are able to grow, develop, and reproduce. Living things are able to adapt over time by the process of natural selection. All known living things use the hereditary molecule, DNA9 biologyhttp://en.wikiboo

March15,2013 sGermanWikibooksandWikipedia n-ShareAlike3 .

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