PART TWO - Pearson

54Part 2Meeting Human Resources RequirementsFigure3.4Process Chart for Analyzing a Job’s WorkflowInput fromsuppliersInput fromplant managersJob understudy –Inventory ControlClerkInformationoutput toplant managersInventoryoutput toplant managersSource: Henderson, Richard I. (ed.), Compensation Management in a Knowledge-based World, 10th ed.(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006), p. 114. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.STEP 2: SELECT JOBS TO BE A NALYZEDjob design The process of systematically organizing work intotasks that are required to perform aspecific job.M03 DESS4905 04 SE C03.indd 54The next step involves the selection of representative positions and jobs to beanalyzed. This selection is necessary when there are many incumbents in a singlejob and when a number of similar jobs are to be analyzed, because it wouldbe too time-consuming to analyze every position and job.Job design is the process of systematically organizing work into the tasks thatare required to perform a specific job. An organization’s strategy and structureinfluence the ways in which jobs are designed. In bureaucratic organizations,for example, because a hierarchical division of labour exists, jobs are generallyhighly specialized. In addition, effective job design also takes into considerationhuman and technological factors.In the twenty-first century, the traditional meaning of a “job” as a set of welldefined and clearly delineated responsibilities has changed. Companies are grappling with challenges such as rapid product and technological change, globalcompetition, deregulation, political instability, demographic changes, and theshift to a service economy. This has increased the need for firms to be responsive,flexible, and much more competitive. In turn, the organizational methods thatmanagers use to accomplish this have helped weaken the traditional definitionof a “job.” Requiring employees to limit themselves to narrow jobs runs counterto the need to have them willingly switch from task to task as jobs and teamassignments change.All these changes have led to work becoming more cognitively complex,more team-based and collaborative, more dependent on social skills, moredependent on technological competence, more time pressured, more mobile, andless dependent on geography.2 This situation has led some organizations to focuson personal competencies and skills in job analysis, hiring, and compensationmanagement, rather than on specific duties and tasks.12/27/13 3:46 PM

Chapter 3Designing and Analyzing Jobs55The Evolution of Jobs and Job DesignIn most organizations, work is divided into manageable units and, ultimately, intojobs that can be performed by employees. The term “job” as it is known today islargely an outgrowth of the efficiency demands of the Industrial Revolution. Asthe substitution of machine power for people power became more widespread,experts wrote glowingly about the positive correlation between (1) job specialization and (2) productivity and efficiency.3 The popularity of specialized, short-cycle jobs soared—at least among management experts and managers.Work Simplificationwork simplification An approach tojob design that involves assigningmost of the administrative aspectsof work (such as planning andorganizing) to supervisors andmanagers, while giving lower-levelemployees narrowly defined tasksto perform according to methodsestablished and specified bymanagement. Nejron Photo / fotoliaindustrial engineering A field ofstudy concerned with analyzingwork methods; making workcycles more efficient by modifying, combining, rearranging, or eliminating tasks; and establishingtime standards.Work simplification evolved from scientific management theory. It is based on thepremise that work can be broken down into clearly defined, highly specialized,repetitive tasks to maximize efficiency. This approach to job design involves assigning most of the administrative aspects of work (such as planning and organizing)to supervisors and managers, while giving lower-level employees narrowly definedtasks to perform according to methods established and specified by management.Work simplification can increase operating efficiency in a stable environmentand may be very appropriate in settings employing individuals with intellectualdisabilities or those lacking education and training (as in some operations inthe developing world); it is not effective, however, in a changing environment inwhich customers/clients demand custom-designed products and/or high-qualityservices, or one in which employees want challenging work. Moreover, amongeducated employees, simplified jobs often lead to lower satisfaction, higher ratesof absenteeism and turnover, and sometimes to a demand for premium pay tocompensate for the repetitive nature of the work.Industrial EngineeringAnother important contribution of scientific management was the study ofwork. Industrial engineering, which evolved with this movement, is concernedwith analyzing work methods and establishing time standards to improve efficiency. Industrial engineers systematically identify, analyze, and time the elements of eachjob’s work cycle and determine which, if any, elementscan be modified, combined, rearranged, or eliminated toreduce the time needed to complete the cycle.Too much emphasis on the concerns of industrial engineering—improving efficiency and simplifying work methods—may result in human considerations being neglected ordownplayed. For example, an assembly line, with its simplified and repetitive tasks, embodies the principles of industrialengineering but may lead to repetitive strain injuries, highturnover, and low satisfaction because of the lack of psychological fulfillment. Thus, to be effective, job design must alsosatisfy human psychological and physiological needs.Job Enlargement (Horizontal Loading)Industrial engineering improves efficiency and simplifies work methods but neglects human considerations, such as repetitive strain andlack of psychological fulfillment.M03 DESS4905 04 SE C03.indd 55By the mid-1900s, reacting to what they viewed asthe “dehumanizing” aspects of highly repetitive and specialized jobs, various management theorists proposed12/27/13 3:46 PM

56Part 2Meeting Human Resources Requirementsjob enlargement (horizontal loading) A technique to relievemonotony and boredom that involvesassigning workers additional tasksat the same level of responsibility toincrease the number of tasks theyhave to perform.ways of broadening the activities engaged in by employees. Job enlargement,also known as horizontal loading, involves assigning workers additional tasksat the same level of responsibility to increase the number of tasks they haveto perform. Thus, if the work was assembling chairs, the worker who previously only bolted the seat to the legs might take on the additional tasks ofassembling the legs and attaching the back as well. Job enlargement reducesmonotony and fatigue by expanding the job cycle and drawing on a widerrange of employee skills.Job Rotationjob rotation A technique to relievemonotony and employee boredomthat involves systematically movingemployees from one job to another.Another technique to relieve monotony and employee boredom is job rotation.This involves systematically moving employees from one job to another.Although the jobs themselves don’t change, workers experience more task variety, motivation, and productivity. The company gains by having more versatile, multiskilled employees who can cover for one another efficiently.Job Enrichmentjob enrichment (vertical loading)Any effort that makes an employee’sjob more rewarding or satisfyingby adding more meaningful tasksand duties.It has also been suggested that the best way to motivate workers is tobuild opportunities for challenge and achievement into jobs throughjob enrichment, also known as vertical loading.4 This is defined as any effortthat makes an employee’s job more rewarding or satisfying by adding more meaningful tasks and duties. Job enrichment involves increasing autonomyand responsibility by allowing employees to assume a greater role in thedecision-making process.Enriching a job can be accomplished through activities such as increasing the level of difficulty and responsibility of the job; assigning workers more authority and control over outcomes; providing feedback about individual or unit job performance directly toemployees;     addingnew tasks requiring training, thereby providing an opportunity forgrowth; andTips     assigningFOR THE FRONT LINEergonomics An interdisciplinaryapproach that seeks to integrateand accommodate the physicalneeds of workers into the designof jobs. It aims to adapt the entirejob system—the work, environment, machines, equipment, andprocesses—to match humancharacteristics.M03 DESS4905 04 SE C03.indd 56individuals entire tasks or responsibility for performing a wholejob rather than only parts of it, such as conducting an entire backgroundcheck rather than just checking educational credentials.Job enrichment is not always the best approach. It is more successful in somejobs and settings than in others; for example, not all employees want additionalresponsibilities and challenges. Some people prefer routine jobs and may resistjob redesign efforts. In addition, job redesign efforts almost always fail whenemployees lack the physical or mental skills, abilities, or education needed toperform the additional tasks required post job enrichment.ErgonomicsIn addition to considering psychological needs, effective job design alsorequired taking physiological needs and health and safety issues into account.Ergonomics seeks to integrate and accommodate the physical needs of w orkersinto the design of jobs. It aims to adapt the entire job system—the work, environment, machines, equipment, and processes—to match human characteristics.12/27/13 3:46 PM

Chapter 3Designing and Analyzing Jobs57Doing so results in eliminating or minimizing productdefects, damage to equipment, and worker injuries or illnesses caused by poor work design. Sebastian Kaulitzki / fotoliaCompetency-Based Job AnalysisNot coincidently, many employers and job analysis expertssay that traditional job analysis procedures can’t go onplaying a central role in HR management.5 Their basicconcern is this: In high-performance work environmentsin which employers need workers to seamlessly movefrom job to job and exercise self- control, job descriptionsbased on lists of job-specific duties may actually inhibit(or fail to encourage) the flexible behaviour companiesneed. Employers are therefore shifting toward newerapproaches for describing jobs, such as c ompetency-basedanalysis.Competency-based job analysis basically means writErgonomics considerations apply to manual and knowledge working job descriptions based on competencies rather thaners alike, and aim at adapting job aspects to physical aspects in ajob duties. It emphasizes what the employee must besustainable way.capable of doing, rather than a list of the duties he or shemust perform.Competencies are demonstrable characteristics of a person that enable percompetencies Demonstrable characteristics of a person thatformance. Job competencies are always observable and measurable behavioursenable performance of a job.that comprise part of a job. The job’s required competencies can be identified bysimply completing this sentence: “In order to perform this job competently, theemployee should be able to . . .”Competency-based job analysis means describing the job in terms of the meacompetency-based job analysisDescribing a job in terms of thesurable, observable behavioural competencies (knowledge, skills, or behaviours)measurable, observable behaviouralthat an employee doing that job must exhibit to do the job well. This contrastscompetencies an employee mustwith the traditional way of describing a job in terms of job duties and responsiexhibit to do a job well.bilities. Traditional job analysis focuses on “what” is accomplished—on dutiesand responsibilities. Competency-based analysis focuses more on “how” theworker meets the job’s objectives or actually accomplishes the work. Traditionaljob analysis is thus job focused; competency-based analysis is worker focused—specifically, what must he or she be competent to do?Three Reasons to Use Competency AnalysisThere are three reasons to describe jobs in terms of competencies rather thanduties. Giving someone a job description with a list of specific duties may simplybreed a “that’s-not-my-job” attitude by pigeonholing workers too narrowly.1. Traditional job descriptions (with their lists of specific duties) may actuallybackfire if a high-performance work system is the goal. The whole thrustof these systems is to encourage employees to work in a self-motivatedway by organizing the work around teams, encouraging team members torotate freely among jobs (each with its own skill set), pushing more responsibility for things like day-to-day supervision down to the workers, and organizing work around projects or processes in which jobs may blend oroverlap. Employees here must be enthusiastic about learning and movingamong jobs.M03 DESS4905 04 SE C03.indd 5712/27/13 3:46 PM

58Part 2Meeting Human Resources Requirements2. Describing the job in terms of the skills, knowledge, and competencies theworker needs is more strategic. For example, a company with a strategicemphasis on miniaturization and precision manufacturing should encouragesome employees to develop their expertise in these two strategically crucialareas.3. Measurable skills, knowledge, and competencies support the employer’s performance management process. Training, appraisals, and rewards shouldbe based on fostering and rewarding the skills and competencies required toachieve work goals. Describing the job in terms of skills and competenciesfacilitates understanding of those required competencies.Examples of CompetenciesIn practice, managers often write paragraph-length competencies for jobs and organize these into two or threeclusters. For example, the job’s required competenciesmight include general or core competencies (such as reading, writing, and mathematical reasoning), leadershipcompetencies (such as leadership, strategic thinking, andteaching others), and technical/task/functional competencies (which focus on the specific technical competenciesrequired for specific types of jobs or occupations).So, some technical competencies for the job of systemsengineer might include the following:     designcomplex software applications, establish protocols, and create prototypesthe necessary platform requirements to efficiently and completely coordinate data transfer Andy Levin/Science Source     establish      preparecomprehensive and complete d ocumentationincluding specifications, flow diagrams, processpatrols, and budgets6Similarly, for a corporate treasurer, technical competencies might include the following:At a Nissan factory in Tokyo, Japan, workers meet at a productivity session, surrounded by unfinished car frames hanging along the assembly line. Work teams like this are part of the trend toward a multiskilled, cross-functional, self-directed team organization thatallows workers greater autonomy in meeting goals. In plants likethese, broadly described jobs that emphasize employees’ required competencies are replacing narrowly defined jobs.Research INSIGHT     formulatetrade recommendations by studying severalcomputer models for currency trends and using various quantitative t echniques to determine the financialimpact of certain financial trades    recommendspecific trades and when to make them     presentrecommendations and persuade others tofollow the r ecommended course of action7 (Note:Exhibiting this competency presumes the treasurer hascertain knowledge and skills that one could measure.)Comparing Traditional versus Competency-Based Job AnalysisIn practice, in almost any job description today some of the job’s listed dutiesand responsibilities are competency based, while most are not. For example, consider the typical duties you might find in a marketing manager’s job description.M03 DESS4905 04 SE C03.indd 5812/27/13 3:46 PM

Chapter 3Designing and Analyzing Jobs59Which of the duties would complete this phrase: “In order to perform this jobcompetently, the employee should be able to . . .”?Some familiar duties and responsibilities would not easily fit these requirements. For example, “work with writers and artists and oversee copywriting,design, layout, and production of promotional materials” is not particularlymeasurable. How can the extent to which the employee “works with writersand artists” or “oversees copywriting, design, and layout” be measured? Putanother way, in analyzing this job, how would one determine whether theperson had been adequately trained to work with writers and artists? In fact,what sort of training would that duty and responsibility even imply? It’s notclear at all.On the other hand, some of the job’s typical duties and responsibilities aremore easily expressed as competencies. For example, the phrase “to perform thisjob competently, the employee should be able to . . .” could easily be completedwith “conduct marketing surveys on current and new-product concepts; prepare marketing activity reports; and develop and execute marketing plans andprograms.”team-based job designs Jobdesigns that focus on giving a team,rather than an individual, a wholeand meaningful piece of work to doand empowering team members todecide among themselves how toaccomplish the work.team A small group of people withcomplementary skills who worktoward common goals for whichthey hold

FunAentD m Als oF Job AnAlysis Job analysis is a process by which information about jobs is systematically gathered and organized. Job analysis is sometimes called the cornerstone of HRM. A job consists of a group of related activities and duties. Ideally, the duties of a job should be clear and distinct from those of other jobs, and they should