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Public Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedCompetitiveCities forjobs andgrowth101546What,Who,andHow
Competitive Cities for Jobs and GrowthA ’competitivecity’ successfullyfacilitates its firmsand industries togrow jobs, raiseproductivity andincrease incomes ofcitizens. Improvingthe competitivenessof cities is a pathwayto eradicate povertyand increase sharedprosperity. Whilethree quarters ofcities grew fasterthan their nationaleconomies sincethe early 2000’s,there is still roomfor improvement:millions of additionaljobs could be createdevery year if morecities performedat the level ofthe world’s mostcompetitive cities.This report aimsat understandingwhat makes a citycompetitive, and howmore cities can becompetitive.What, Who, and HowCompetitive cities drivedisproportionate job growth andincreased income and productivityLooking at data on 750 cities for 2005 to 2012:72 percent outperformedtheir countries in terms ofeconomic growth.10%But there is huge variation in performanceTop 10 percent of cities achieved 9.2% annualjob growth, compared to 1.9% in the other 90percent of the cities.Often these cities are under theradar: Secondary cities ratherthan household names.These competitive cities were not a foregone conclusion:many of them exhibited success amidst adversity - e.g.landlocked and in a lagging region of the country. What canwe learn from their growth?What Do They Do?Competitive Cities Leverage Key Interventions To IncreaseCompetitivenessACities do not always need to overhaul their economies—sometimes it is enough to do what you already do, but do itbetter.Market towns to IndustryAt GDP per capita below 2,500, cities aretypically ‘market towns’ that will need toindustrialize and transform to increase theirincomes;Increase Production CentersAt GDP per capita from 2,500, cities are typically‘production centers’ that can grow to around 20,000 GDP per capita by increasing the valueof their existing industry mix;Increase Creative & Financial ServicesTo rise above GDP per capita of 20,000, citieswill typically need to move towards higher valuecreative and financial services.
Cities Can Facilitate The Growth of Jobs, Productivity andIncomes Through Four Categories of Interventions:BAInstitutions & RegulationsInfrastructure & LandCities BecomeCompetitive By:CALeveraging their comparativeadvantage, especially in tradablesectors that can be sold in othercities and exported to othercountries.In the fastestgrowing citiestradable sectorsgrew 2.5percentage pointsfaster than nontradable sectors;Skills & InnovationWho Does it and How?Competitive cities use three channels to get things done:Mayor’s WedgeMake economic development an explicit priority. Cities needto focus their efforts and prioritize according to the outcomesthey care about most. (They also need both the power andcapacity to ensure successful interventions).Growth CoalitionsNurture public-privatecoalitions to solveparticular problems. Itdoesn’t matter whocarries out the keyinterventions, as long assomeone does.Industry-SpecificPursuing generalreforms as well asspecific (targeted toparticularindustries andinvestors);Focusing on allthree sources ofgrowth: expansionof existing firms;creation ofnew firms; andattraction ofinvestors.Enterprise Support & ntalRelationsIntergovernmental RelationsUse external leverage with neighboring jurisdictions and othertiers of government. These can expand the city’s reach andengage with problems that one city alone cannot solve.Competitive Cities Focus on Turning Strategies intoReal Action - Through:1.Strategic Budgeting2.Problem-Solving During Implementation3.Ensuring Quality Delivery ThroughAccountability
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Background andacknowledgementsThis research was prepared jointly by the Social, Urban,Rural, and Resilience Global Practice and the Trade andCompetitiveness Global Practice of the World BankGroup. Its objective is to create a knowledge base on whatmakes cities competitive, to improve the understanding ofjob creation at the city level, and to establish a foundation fora community of practice on this topic for World Bank Groupstaff, academia, development partners, and practitioners.The team would like to acknowledge gratefully the EuropeanCommission, the African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group ofStates Secretariat, and the governments of Austria, Norway,and Switzerland for financing this study through the Competitive Industries and Innovation Program.The steering committee for this research comprised StefanoNegri, Cecilia Sager, Sameh Wahba, and Somik Lall. Theresearch was led jointly by Megha Mukim and Austin Kilroyas task team leaders. This overview document was preparedby a team led by Austin Kilroy, Megha Mukim, and StefanoNegri. The joint team included Kenan Fikri, Drilon Gashi,Z. Joe Kulenovic, Elisa Muzzini, Sharmila Railkar, DmitrySivaev, Daniel Stock, Joanna Watkins, and Juni TingtingZhu. Senior management of the two global practices providedguidance and strong support throughout the research. Themanagers included Ivan Rossignol, Klaus Tilmes, and AnabelGonzalez for Trade and Competitiveness and Ede Jorge IjjaszVasquez and Marisela Montoliu-Munoz for Social, Urban,Rural, and Resilience. Practice managers for the researchwere Stefano Negri, Sameh Wahba, and Cecilia Sager. Inputswere also provided by the World Bank Group’s GovernanceGlobal Practice, the Jobs Cross-Cutting Solution Area, andthe International Finance Corporation’s Cities Initiative.The team thanks Karolina Ordon and Christopher Colfordfor editorial and graphic support and Imtiaz Ahmad Sheikhfor solving administrative problems speedily and with goodhumor.The team gratefully acknowledges the peer reviews andinputs from these World Bank Group colleagues: Bill Dorotinsky, Emiliano Duch, Thomas Farole, Xavier Forneris, EjazGhani, Mary Hallward-Driemeier, Bill Maloney, VincentPalmade, Martin Rama, Ivan Rossignol, Valerie Santos, ParthTewari, Hyoung Gun Wang, Roland White, Robert Whyte,Justin Piers William Hill and Ming Zhang. In addition, taskteam leaders and program leaders of the World Bank Group’soperations helped configure the research and provided feedback during the team’s work, including Marcus Lee and PaulProcee (East Asia and Pacific); Stephen Karam, Jean LouiseRacine, and Jose Guilherme Reis (Europe and Central Asia);Dean Cira, Lucy Fye, Smita Kuriakose, Onur Ozlu, and DavidSislen (Sub-Saharan Africa); Andrea Liverani and Philippede Meneval (Middle East and North Africa); Jose Luis Acero,Leonardo Iacovone, Thomas Kenyon, and Augustin Maria(Latin America and the Caribbean); and Bertine Kamphuis,Yue Li, Barjor Mehta, and Fatima Shah (South Asia). The teamis especially grateful for feedback from colleagues outside theWorld Bank Group: Cara Camacho (U.S. Treasury), RolandHunter (South African National Treasury), Christian Ketels(Harvard Business School), Jaana Remes (McKinsey GlobalInstitute), Andrew Stern (Dalberg), Gilles Duranton (TheWharton School, University of Pennsylvania), and ShahidYusuf (Growth Dialogue).This overview document is drawn from detailed findings contained in several companion papers, as described in the following section titled “Methodology, Approach, and Outputs.”5
2015 The World Bank Group1818 H Street NWWashington, DC 20433Telephone: 202-473-1000Internet: www.worldbank.orgAll rights reserved.This volume is a product of the staff of the World Bank Group. The World Bank Group refersto the member institutions of the World Bank Group: The World Bank (International Bank forReconstruction and Development); International Finance Corporation (IFC); and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), which are separate and distinct legal entities eachorganized under its respective Articles of Agreement. We encourage use for educational andnon-commercial purposes.The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflectthe views of the Directors or Executive Directors of the respective institutions of the World BankGroup or the governments they represent. The World Bank Group does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work.Rights and PermissionsThe material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all ofthis work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The World Bank encouragesdissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the workpromptly.For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA01923, USA; telephone: 978-750-8400; fax: 978-750-4470; Internet: www.copyright.com.All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to theOffice of the Publisher, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA;fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org.About the Competitive Industries and Innovation Program (CIIP)The CIIP partnership was created to enhance country growth and employment prospects bysupporting public policies and investments that promote competitiveness and innovation withinand across industries. The partnership’s resources are focused on supporting governments’ efforts to develop transformational economic development projects and to aggregate cutting-edgeknowledge that can be implemented as part of targeted pro-growth initiatives. As the Trusteeand Administrator for CIIP, the World Bank Group is responsible for program development,implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. For more information, visit www.theciip.org.6
Table ofContentsBackground and Acknowledgments 5Methodology, Approach, and Outputs 8Abbreviations 11Executive Summary 12Introduction: Making Cities Competitive: Urgent, Complex, and with Big Potential Returns 15Chapter 1: What Do Competitive Cities Look Like? 23Key Takeaways from Chapter 1 29Chapter 2: What Have Competitive Cities Done to Achieve Their Success? 33What Does the Private Sector Need from Cities? 34What Can Cities Do for Firms? 36What Interventions Are Used by Competitive Cities? 38Who Creates City Competitiveness? 46How Are Economic Development Strategies Sequenced and Delivered? 51Key Takeaways from Chapter 2 52Chapter 3: How Can Cities Become More Competitive? 57What: Growth Pathways and Prioritization 59Who: Growth Coalitions 62How: Organizing for Delivery 63Key Takeaways from Chapter 3 68The Role of the World Bank Group in Competitive Cities 697
Methodology,Approach andOutputsThe goal of this research has been to create a robust body of knowledge to address cities’ questions on benchmarking theirperformance, on analyzing what has worked and what has not, and on understanding how to organize for delivery indifferent contexts. The approach has used several methodologies to tackle these questions on the basis of best practice,data availability, replicability, and simplicity. In many cases, the research team leveraged new and existing data sources to shednew light on unanswered questions; in other cases, the team conducted primary research because available data were inadequate.The research involved looking at global and regional trends, comparing different typologies of cities—by income, sector, region,and industrial mix. The team buttressed these findings with econometric “deep dives” and case studies in selected countries andcities. Where possible, the study cites existing resources (research, analysis, toolkits, and experts) from the extensive literatureon each topic.Supplementing and informing this overview document are several companion papers that provide the foundations for the conclusions. These papers, available on the website at www.worldbank.org/competitivecities, are as follows:Companion Paper 1Companion Paper 3“City Analytics”This paper identifies common threads in city performance byassessing the state of cities today and identifying factors thatappear to be correlated with better economic outcomes. Thedocument also demonstrates how the database and analytictools can be used in other contexts such as in regional econometric deep dives. Prepared by Kenan Fikri and Juni TingtingZhu with substantial inputs from Anca Bogdana Rusu andguidance from Megha Mukim.“Six Case Studies of Economically Successful Cities:What Have We Learned?”The case studies were prepared in collaboration with regionalteams, including the relevant program leaders. This papersynthesizes the findings of the six individual case studies—Bucaramanga, Colombia; Coimbatore, India; Kigali, Rwanda;Changsha, China; Gaziantep, Turkey; and Tangier, Morocco—analyzing the similarities and dissimilarities amongthem and identifying cross-cutting themes. The paper highlights the institutions and strategies that successful citieshave relied on to spur economic development, the conditionsin which such successes have occurred, and the lessons of thisexperience that might be applicable to decision makers inother cities. Prepared by a team led by Z. Joe Kulenovic withcontributions from Alexandra Cech, Drilon Gashi, Luke Jordan, Austin Kilroy, Megha Mukim, and Juni Tingting Zhu.Companion Paper 2“Deep-Dive Quantitative Studies,” combines twostudies: (a) “Empowering Cities: Good for Growth?Evidence from China” and (b) “Decentralization inEthiopia—Who Benefits?”Both studies use longitudinal firm-level data to provideeconometric and causal evidence of whether and how citiesdrive economic growth and job creation. (a) Prepared by JuniTingting Zhu and Megha Mukim, and (b) prepared by RitamChaurey and Megha Mukim.8
Companion Paper 4Companion Paper 7“User’s Guide to Implementing City CompetitivenessInterventions,”This paper supports cities in identifying management approaches that can help decision makers implement interventions to support the city economy. Prepared by Drilon Gashiand Joanna Watkins.“Public-Private Dialogue for City Competitiveness,”This paper offers a framework for formulating structureddialogues at the city level, including objectives, analytics, andparticipants. Prepared by Dmitry Sivaev, Benjamin Herzberg,and Sumit Manchanda, in consultation with Steve Utterwulghe.Companion Paper 5Companion Paper 8“What Do Multinational Firms Want from Cities?”This paper reviews what multinational firms want from citiesfrom the perspective of intermediary consulting firms thatprovide location advisory services and city or regional investment promotion intermediaries. Prepared by Juni TingtingZhu, Valerie Joy Santos, and Yago Aranda Larrey in consultation with Robert Whyte and Stefano Negri.“What Makes a Good City Strategy”This paper reviews various approaches to city strategy-settingand identifies common pitfalls of city strategies based on areview of theoretical and empirical evidence. Prepared byDmitry Sivaev in consultation with Sameh Wahba, SorayaGoga, and Austin Kilroy.Companion Paper 6“Growth Pathways: A Diagnostic Methodology for CityCompetitiveness,” and the City Snapshot diagnostictoolThis paper provides a methodology for generating a snapshot of a city economy with reference to the performance ofvarious sectors and firm types—and for identifying potentialgrowth pathways. These diagnostics help decision makersto assess how competitive a city economy is, to understandwhat a city’s competitive advantages are, and to identify thekey barriers that a city’s businesses are facing. Prepared byDmitry Sivaev in consultation with Austin Kilroy and StefanoNegri.NoteUnless otherwise described, region in this paper refers to World Bank Group regions: Africa, East Asia and Pacific,Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, and South Asia.9
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CODIOEOECDOIZPPDRCCSEZSMEsTEUUNCTADWEFDevelopment Research CenterEconomist Intelligence Unitforeign direct investmentgross domestic productgeographic information systemGreater Manchester Combined Authoritygross value addedInternational Finance Corporationinvestment promotion intermediarieslocal economic developmentmeetings, incentives, conferences and eventsmultinational corporationOverseas Development InstituteOxford EconomicsOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Developmentorganized economic zonespublic-private dialogueregional competitiveness commissionspecial economic zonesmall and medium enterprises20-foot equivalent unitUnited Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentWorld Economic ForumAll monetary amounts are US unless otherwise indicated.11
Executive SummaryImproving the competitiveness of cities is a pathway toeradicate poverty and increase shared prosperity. Millionsof additional jobs could be created every year if more citiesperformed at the level of the world’s most competitive cities.Acompetitive city is a city that successfully facilitates its firms and industries to create jobs,raise productivity, and increase the incomesof citizens over time. Worldwide, improving the competitiveness of cities is a pathway to eliminating extreme povertyand to promoting shared prosperity. Of the largest 750 citiesin the world, three-quarters have grown faster than theirnational economies since the early 2000s; but several millionadditional jobs could be created every year if more citiesperformed at the level of the world’s best. The primary sourceof job creation has been the growth of private sector firms,which have typically accounted for around 75 percent of jobcreation. Thus city leaders need to be familiar with the factorsthat help to attract, to retain, and to expand the privatesector. This document aims to analyze what makes a citycompetitive and how more cities can become competitive.What Do Competitive Cities LookLike?Cities vary on their economic performance, andcompetitive cities are a cut above the norm. Using datafrom 2005 to 2012, the report finds the following: Accelerated economic growth. The top 10 percent of citiesachieved 13.5 percent annual gross domestic product(GDP) per capita growth, compared with 4.7 percent inan average city; Outstanding job growth. The top 10 percent of citiesachieved 9.2 percent annual jobs growth, compared with1.9 percent in the remaining 90 percent. Increased incomes and productivity. The top 10 percent ofcities increased the average disposable income of theirhouseholds by 9.8 percent annually. Magnets for foreign direct investment (FDI). The top 5percent of cities obtained as much FDI as the bottom 95percent of cities combined.Although 72 percent of cities outperformed their nationaleconomies in GDP growth alone, only 18 percent of citieswere able to outperform their national economies on jobs,12growth, and productivity simultaneously. Thus it appearsthat usually trade-offs are made between these economicoutcomes and that city competitiveness carries risks as wellas opportunities.Competitive cities include more than just householdnames, capital cities, or global centers of commerce.They are often secondary cities, and they are experiencing rapid industrialization. According to this study’s data,competitive cities include Saltillo, Mexico; Meknes, Morocco;Coimbatore, India; Gaziantep, Turkey; Bucaramanga, Colombia; and Onitsha, Nigeria. The success of these competitivecities was not a foregone conclusion: many of them exhibitedsuccess amid adversity—for example, many of them are landlocked and in a lagging region of the country.What Did Competitive Cities Do toAchieve Success?Economic structureStructural transformation came first, efficiency gainsand productivity next. Cities do not always overhaultheir economies to become competitive. They simply becomebetter at what they do. At lower income levels, the cities aretypically market towns that face the challenge of transformation from a service center to a production
productivity and increase incomes of citizens. Improving the competitiveness of cities is a pathway to eradicate poverty and increase shared prosperity. While three quarters of cities grew faster than their national economies since the early 2000’s, there is still room for improvement: millions of additional jobs could be created every year if more cities performed at the level of the world .
Public Disclosure Authorized WPS4202 Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized. 2 INTRODUCTION Small arms are estimated to be responsible for between 200,000 - 400,000 deaths around the world each year. Approximately 20,000 – 100,000 of these firearm deaths occur in conflict
Kemal Dervis, Jaime de Melo, and Sherman Robinson A General Equilibrium Analysis of Foreign Exchange Shortages in a Developing Economy Reprinted with permission from The Economic Journal, vol. 91 (December 1981), pp. 891-906. Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized
Public Disclosure Authorized 44986 Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized. Informe sobre el crecimiento . Kemal Dervis, administrador, United Nations Development Programme; ex ministro de Asun-tos Económicos y del Tesoro, Turquía.
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