Insight Report Making Affordable Housing A Reality In Cities
Insight ReportMaking Affordable Housinga Reality in CitiesCities, Urban Development & Urban Services PlatformIn Collaboration with PwCJune 2019
ContentsForeword3–4Executive Summary5Chapter 1 – Introduction7Chapter 2 – Supply-Side Challenges:Land Acquisition and Securing Title14Chapter 3 – Supply-Side Challenges:Land Use – Zoning and Regulations18Chapter 4 – Supply-Side Challenges:Funding Affordable Housing24Chapter 5 – Supply-Side Challenges:Design Considerations and ConstructionCosts of Affordable Housing28Chapter 6 – Demand-Side Challenges:An Overview33Chapter 7 – notes59World Economic Forum91-93 route de la CapiteCH-1223 Cologny/GenevaSwitzerlandTel.: 41 (0)22 869 1212Fax: 41 (0)22 786 2744Email: contact@weforum.orgwww.weforum.org 2019 World Economic Forum. All rightsreserved. No part of this publication may bereproduced or transmitted in any form or by anymeans, including photocopying and recording, orby any information storage and retrieval system.
ForewordAnil Menon, Gregory Hodkinson, Hazem Galal, Jonathan Reckford& Alice CharlesAnil MenonManaging BoardMember, WorldEconomic ForumHazem GalalGlobal Leader,Cities and LocalGovernment, PwCGregoryHodkinson,Senior Adviser tothe Chairman, ArupJonathanReckford,CEO, Habitat forHumanityAlice Charles,Lead, Cities, UrbanDevelopment &Urban Services,World EconomicForumA world in which only a few can afford housing is not sustainable. Everyonedeserves a safe place to live: it can transform the quality of life of individualsand families. Today, however, most cities around the world are facing majorchallenges in providing safe and adequate housing for their people, especiallycities that are growing rapidly and where the affordable housing options arelimited. Even those who earn steady wages are unable to buy or rent affordablehousing. Rents remain alarmingly high and out of line with incomes forcing manyto pay more than 50% of their income each month on housing. Key workerssuch as teachers, police officers, firefighters and nurses cannot afford to livenear the communities they serve, instead having to bear the costs – in time andmoney – of commuting.The extent of the affordable housing challenge, however, varies acrossgeographies. The housing market is affected not only by market conditionsbut also by socio-political factors, environmental factors and the regulatorylandscape of countries and cities. Finding solutions in a particular city requiresa broader understanding of what constitutes affordability and the factorsthat affect it. Ensuring the healthy functioning of the housing market requiresactions that address interdependencies on the supply-side while stimulatinginterventions on the demand-side.This Insight Report explores both supply-side and demand-side dynamics.On the supply side, these include land acquisition and regulation, upgradingproperty tenures, financing models, and design and development costs. On thedemand side, issues include how to determine eligibility for affordable housing,the range of tenure models for different demographics, and provisioningappropriate access to credit. The Insight Report carefully analyzes each ofthese challenges for different stakeholders and provides them with specificrecommendations to impact the city housing market in a city. It guidesdecision makers towards strategic interventions and long-term reforms thatcan reduce dependence on government support systems and incentivize morecommercially viable affordable housing through policies and practices thataddress systemic gaps in the housing value chain.Reforms are required at each stage of the housing value chain, from securingland, engaging local communities, to building and improving homes that aresafe, resilient and sustainable. A multi-stakeholder environment is neededto address calls for action from all entities involved – local (state and federal)government, private sector and civil society. Cities must act to addressaffordability if they want to avoid a mass exodus of key workers and othertalented individuals. Communities develop only when the needs of all residentsare met. Ensuring affordable homes is a critical step in that direction, and thisInsight Report provides a holistic perspective on the ongoing discussion abouthow best to do so.Making Affordable Housing a Reality in Cities3
ForewordFor close to a decade, Calgary has consistently been cited as one of five mostlivable cities in the world. Our high quality of life, abundant resources andeconomic opportunity have attracted migrants from all over the world, andthe face of the city is now changing rapidly. At the City of Calgary we ensureaccess to basic urban infrastructure and services – like the 60,000 Calgarianswho access our reduced fare Low Income Transit Pass – as well as safe andaffordable housing, regardless of their income.Naheed Nenshi,Mayor of CalgaryAlthough affordable compared to many other North American cities for thosepurchasing their home, Calgary still has a considerable non-market housingdeficit. Only 3.6 per cent of our housing is non-market, compared to thenational average of 6 per cent for other urban centers. Calgary is addressingthis imbalance through the innovative initiatives in our affordable housingstrategy, as we work to encourage the development of more supply across thehousing spectrum. Recognizing the pent-up demand among affordable housingproviders, Calgary began selling surplus City-owned land to non-profit providersat book value, imbedded a full-time affordable housing coordinator in ourPlanning department to facilitate applications, funded a grant program to rebateplanning and development fees and expanded our advocacy efforts to otherorders of government. The result? Thousands of additional affordable units arenow under construction or are in our development pipeline.Given my work on the affordable housing file in Calgary, I am heartened thatthe World Economic Forum has undertaken an initiative taking such a holisticapproach to the affordable housing challenge, covering both the supply anddemand sides.I found this report useful and hope it proves equally helpful for other citiesaround the world that are facing similar challenges. I also hope cities are able toestablish a much broader dialogue involving different levels of government, civilsociety and the private sector, focused on improving the housing supply in waysthat combine affordability with commercial viability.4Making Affordable Housing a Reality in Cities
Executive summaryCities are growing at an unprecedented rate, presentingan incredible opportunity for the development of localeconomies. However, their residents need good, affordablehousing – and this remains a challenge around the world.Well-functioning property markets can act as a financialspringboard for enterprises and job creation. An enablingenvironment for affordable housing can be developed withthe right infrastructure, investment and macroeconomicpolicies targeted towards social and financial inclusion.The challenge of affordability requires not just short-termfixes but also long-term strategies. Solutions will need toaddress both the supply side and the demand side of thehousing market, and involve public-sector, private-sectorand non-profit stakeholders.Affordability: exploring the problemChapter 1 unpacks the notion of “affordability”: It is not onlyabout being able to afford to buy or rent a house, but alsobeing able to afford to live in it. This goes beyond meetingexpenses related to operations and maintenance; it alsoinvolves considerations of transport, infrastructure andservices. If a house is cheap enough to buy and run, butlocated far from livelihood opportunities or amenities suchas schools, it cannot be said to be affordable.The reasons for a lack of affordability vary from city to city, butcommonly include housing costs rising faster than incomes,supply of houses not keeping up with demand, scarcity ofland, and demographic changes such as population growth,ageing and changes in household composition.Supply-side challenge 1:land acquisition and titlingHousing investments depend on land having a legal titleand security through tenure and property rights. Chapter 2explores innovative land acquisition strategies such as:–– Land-pooling, where an undeveloped piece of land isexchanged for a smaller, developed piece of land, andtradeable land quotas, in which agricultural land onthe periphery of a city can be converted if other land isopened up for agriculture beyond the city’s boundaries.–– Focusing on ensuring property rights – for example, theright not to be forcibly evicted – rather than formalizingproperty titles.–– Partnerships between community land trusts, whichown and steward land on behalf of a community, andmunicipal land banks, which acquire vacant land andprepare it for development.Supply-side challenge 2: land useCity governments generally use two tools – zoning andregulation – to shape where and how new houses can bebuilt. Chapter 3 explores the pros and cons associated withgreenfield and brownfield development and discussesstrategies such as:–– Transit-oriented development, in which expansionof cities is planned around new urban transportinfrastructure.–– Algorithmic zoning, with incentives for developers basedon assessment of what is needed to maximize thevibrancy of a community.–– Mixed-use development and inclusionary zoning, toensure neighbourhoods have a mix of income levels andproximity to jobs and services.–– Taxation solutions, such as taxing the underlying valueof land rather than the value of the property on it, andimposing a tax on vacant land or properties.Supply-side challenge 3: securing financeWhile some investors are starting to see affordable housingas a low-risk addition to their portfolio – as demand from keyworkers in public services is likely to remain strong throughrecessions – the private sector naturally focuses on marketrate housing, where returns are expected to be higher.Chapter 4 discusses options for funding the development ofaffordable houses, including:–– Government provision of tax incentives, grants orexemptions for private developers to develop certaintypes of property or develop in designated areas.–– Government-guaranteed bonds providing cheap, longterm finance to community-based organizations todevelop and manage affordable housing.–– Employing investment models such as microfinance, realestate investment trusts (REITs), impact investing andIslamic finance.Supply-side challenge 4: design andconstructionWhile land is often the biggest cost in developing housing,construction costs are not far behind – and sometimes evengreater. Chapter 5 looks into how housing can be mademore affordable by bringing these costs down. Approachesinclude:–– Minimizing bureaucracy, as the fees and costs ofcomplying with complicated building codes can addsignificantly to project cost. There is potential fortechnology to provide solutions here.–– Emerging construction technologies such as 3D printing,robot bricklayers, self-driving bulldozers – and solutionsrelated to the internet of things (IoT) and artificialintelligence (AI) that could bring down operational andmaintenance costs.–– Alternative construction materials such as fly ash,cement-coated expanded polystyrene panels, glassfibre-reinforced gypsum, cross-laminated timber andcompressed earth blocks.–– Public-private partnerships on training to address skillsshortages in the construction sector.Making Affordable Housing a Reality in Cities5
Demand-side challengesShould strategies try to make housing affordable foreveryone, or target assistance at certain sections ofthe population? And how should targeted populationsbe defined: by income level, age, number of children oremployment as key workers? Chapter 6 delves into theseand other challenges on the demand side of affordablehousing, including:–– Different forms of tenure, going beyond a binary choicebetween rental and homeownership, can offer moreoptions to city residents struggling to afford a house.They include build-to-rent, shared ownership and sharedequity ownership.–– Rent controls offer the potential to protect tenants, butmust also take care not to restrict the future supply ofproperties to rent by unfairly disadvantaging landlords.–– Demand-side interventions need to guard against therisk of helping in the short term but not the long term.Mechanisms to keep units affordable on resale includesubsidy recapture and subsidy retention.RecommendationsEffective strategies need to address both supply anddemand side challenges. The final chapter sets outrecommendations for the three main interdependent actors:–– City governments have to define their long-term plans forincreasing the supply of affordable housing, balancingthe need to minimize urban sprawl with the limits ofthe viability of building denser and taller. They need toaddress political considerations that could hold backthe development of new affordable housing, ensure thathousing developments have adequate infrastructure,explore ways to improve the situations of those living ininformal housing, and create a strong regulatory enablingenvironment for the private and non-profit sectors.–– Private-sector players need to keep abreast of emergingsolutions in construction techniques and materials, workwith governments to ensure an adequate flow of skilledlabour, and consider new solutions in financing andinnovative tenure models.–– Non-profit organizations such as community land trusts,housing cooperatives and microfinance institutions havea critical role in bridging the gap between governmentsand the private sector to improve the affordability ofhousing, as well as working with individuals to help themunderstand their options and make informed decisions.6Making Affordable Housing a Reality in Cities
1IntroductionUnprecedented rates of urbanization and population growthhave made housing affordability a concern around the world:In 2014, McKinsey estimated that 330 million urbanhouseholds were living in substandard housing orwere financially stretched by housing costs (McKinseyGlobal Institute, 2014). This is projected to rise tonearly 440 million households, or 1.6 billion people, by2025 – and 2.5 billion people by 2050.13%According to UN figures, only 13% of the world’scities have affordable housing (UN HABITAT, 2016).In Africa, over 50% ofthe population live in substandardconditions; whereas in India andChina, nearly a quarter of thepopulation live in informalettlements (Florida, 2017). 50%28%less affordableBoomersMillennialsGen XMillennials across the world are spending more on housing than anyprevious generation, with a lower quality of life (Judge & Tomlinson, 2018).Based on median affordability(median price-to-income ratio), citiesin less developed countries arefound to be significantly lessaffordable (28% less affordable) thancities in more developed countries.(Kallergis, et al., 2018)Making Affordable Housing a Reality in Cities7
People come to cities looking for opportunity and better livingconditions. Cities come under pressure to house their poorestcitizens through social or public housing, but low-to-middleincome households often have to depend on market-basedmechanisms to access affordable homes. This requires citiesto access public confidence and investor confidence throughefficient regulatory and governance measures.Cities are increasingly realizing the need for action. In 2016, forexample, Habitat III in Quito adopted the New Urban Agenda,requiring states to promote “‘national, subnational and localhousing policies that support the progressive realization of theright to adequate housing for all”’ by 2030. It encourages anintegrated and inclusive approach to housing that interlinkseducation, employment, health and basic and social servicesthrough collaboration among governments, civil societyorganisationsorganiszations, major interest groups and theprivate sector, nationally, internationally and regionally.Defining ‘affordable housing’As implied by the final point in the above list, affordabilityis not only about the cost of buying a home – it needs toaccount for operation and maintenance costs. Accessibilityof work and social infrastructure also matter. UN-HABITATdefines affordable housing as “housing which is adequatein quality and location and does not cost so much that itprohibits its occupants from meeting other basic living costsor threatens their enjoyment of basic human rights” (UNHABITAT, 2011). Figure 1 below unpacks the concept offinancial affordability.Figure 1: Basic Components of Financial Affordability of HousingCost to buy the houseHouse purchase priceHouse price is determined bycost of land, infrastructure,building materials, labourand profitCost to keep the house14HousingaffordabilityAbility to financedown paymentAffected by down paymentrequirements, available savings,existing debt and loan amountsHouse occupation cost2Land lease, home insurance,property tax, quit rent andbuilding maintenance costsAbility to financiallyservice loans3Interest rates and loan tenure,income and non-housingexpenditureSource: (Su Ling & Almeida, 2016)Common challenges in housing affordability:Housing costs risingdisproportionately tohousehold incomes,a particular problemfor lower-incomehouseholds in citieswith an inadequatesupply of social orpublic housing.In San Francisco, thepoorest 5% earnapproximately 650per month, while thebottom 5% of rentalrates are around 1,500 per month(Fidler & Sabir, 2019).8Affordablehousing supplyis not meetingdemand, withlimited incentivesfor the privatesector to developaffordable housing.Making Affordable Housing a Reality in CitiesScarcity of land foraffordable housing,often due to a lack ofalignment amongcity, state and federalagencies on howland is to be valuedand taxed.Demographic changesa.) Household size – a larger number ofsmaller-sized households can increasedemand for individual housing units.b.) Population growth – including in-migration,especially of college students and keyworkers such as teachers and nurses.c.) Ageing population – rising numbers oflow-income senior citizens add to demand foraffordable housing, while senior citizens whostill reside in large family homes contribute tothe suboptimal allocation of housing units.Energy poverty,results due to the highcosts of heating orcooling relative to lowhousehold income,high energy pricesand poor buildingenergy efficiency.
There is no universal standard of affordable housing, because ideas differ by region and culturein regards to:Household incomes – governments typically define“affordable housing” in reference to low- andmiddle-income households.Energy costs – can be influencedby factors such as the building’sage, type, location andconstruction techniques.Capacity – apartments, condominiums, cooperativesand terraced housing typically offer less privacy andspace than single-family stand-alone units, but havelower costs of maintenance.Providers – subsidized privatehousing, public housing, non-profithousing associations and communityhousing providers are all ways ofdelivering affordable housing.Occupation – key workers in particular often earn slightlyabove the threshold for social housing but not enough toavoid lengthy commutes. Key workers in Sydney, for example,would need to save for a minimum of 13 years for the downpayment on a median-priced home in the city (Gurran, Phibbs,Gilbert, & Zhang, 2018).Housing tenure – affordabilityinitiatives may focus on homeownership, rental or lease (typicallyleases are for longer time periodsthan rentals).Formality – dwelling units that lack security of tenure,have limited access to urban services and are notcompliant with city planning and regulations arereferred to as informal.Making Affordable Housing a Reality in Cities9
Measuring affordabilityThree approaches are commonly used to measure theaffordability of housing:–– The median
Global Leader, Cities and Local Government, PwC Anil Menon Managing Board Member, World Economic Forum Gregory Hodkinson, Senior Adviser to the Chairman, Arup . 4 Making Affordable Housing a Reality in Cities For close to a decade, Calgary has consistently been cited as one of five most livable cities in the world. Our high quality of life, abundant resources and economic opportunity have .
additional affordable housing provision during 2019-20 (2,470 units). 62% of affordable housing units were delivered with capital grant funding. 1 Rent to Own- Wales units do not conform to the TAN 2 definition of affordable housing and as such have not been included in the total additional affordable housing figure shown in this release.
3. Develop criteria or definitions of affordable housing. 4. Reduce the impact of regulations on affordable housing. 5. Contribute land to affordable housing. 6. Provide financial assistance. 7. Reduce, defer, off-set, or waive development fees for affordable housing. 8. Establish a land banking program to ensure the availability of land for future
Mercy Housing Sue Reynolds— . Affordable housing developers compete to creatively stretch and utilize a limited pool of public and private financing sources to develop housing. And even though the demand for affordable housing continues to far outstrip our ability to supply housing, the affordable housing industry has changed .
affordable housing. Methodology This paper focuses on affordable housing built with Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) financing. Since 1986, the LIHTC program has been the most important source of funding for the construction of affordable housing. In California, more than 225,000 new units have been funded under the LIHTC
Affordable Housing is Overconcentrated Even Among Exempt Municipalities Affordable housing remains incredibly concentrated in Connecticut in a few cities with majority BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, people of color)populations . The affordable housing units located 2021. Looking back again to 2002, 77.4% of all assisted housing was in exempt .
Affordable housing production is primarily managed by the Mayor's Office of Housing and Community Development (MOHCD), which supports residents with affordable housing opportunities and essential services to build strong communities. MOHCD coordinates existing affordable housing in San Francisco and also supports the creation of new
Affordable Housing Need in Scotland ii List of abbreviations ARCAnnual Return on the Charter AHSP Affordable Housing Supply Programme ASHE Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings CCHPR Cambridge Centre for Housing and Planning Research CHMA Centre for Housing Market Analysis CIH Chartered Institute of Housing CSR Comprehensive Spending Review ECO Energy Company Obligation (Scheme)
Island Housing Fund to increase the supply of affordable rural housing, support for mid-market rent initiatives and affordable home ownership. 5. These plans require a two thirds increase in the volume of affordable housing development, as just over 30,000 homes were completed over the previous five years by RSLs and local authorities.
