DOCUMENT RESUME ED 088 800 SP 007 647 A History Of .
DOCUMENT RESUMESP 007 647ED 088 800AUTHORTITLEPUB DATE'NOTErEDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORSIDENTIFIERSKnox, HollyA History of Educational Research in the UnitedStates.Sep 7117p.MF- 0.75 HC- 1.50*Educational Development; *Educational Histoty;*Educational Legislation; Educational Policy;'*Educational. Research; Research and DevelopmentCenters*National Institute of Education; NIE; NIE Archives;Research and Development HistoryABSTRACTThis paper is a historical overview of theeducational research and development setting that has been inheritedby the National Institute of Education. The author identifies four'major periods: a) the emergence of education as a field of study(1855-1895); b) the period of empiricism (1895-1S38); c) theassumption of a pragmatic orientation; and d) the emergence of amajor role for the federal government. During the first period,curriculum reformers relied upon European ideas, and the federalgovernment collected and disseminated data. Changes based on,scientific investigation and controlled experiment marked the secondperiod, which was highlighted by the founding of John Dewey'slaboratory school at the University of Chicago and the rise ofeducation as a field of graduate study. The period from 1938 tc 1954saw the decline of research in education caused mainly by econcmicdepression and the gradual separation of education from other areasin the arts and sciences. The: Cooperative Research Act, passed byCongress in 1954, marked the beginning of a major federal role ineducation. In 1965, amendments to the Cooperative Research Act madepossible the organization of a network of research and development(R&D) centers. Rapid growth and proliferation'of responsibility forthe sponsorship of R&D programs have characterized educationalhistory since 1965. (HMD)
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DRAFTINTRODUCTIONThis section is a brief survey of the growth of educational research anddevelopment in the United States during the past century.It was preparedto describe the R&D setting that the new National institute of Educationwill inherit.Though it is limited both to recent times and to UnitedStates efforts, we recognize that experimentation in education is worldwide and is as old as the art of teaching itself.I.The Emergence of Education as a Field of Study in the United States(1855-1895)Education became a topic of continued and serious scholarship in theUnited States in the mid 1890's with the appearance of Henry Barnard'sAmerican Journal of Education.The Journal was the first periodicalin this country devoted to reflections on the aims and content of education.It helped popularize educational ideas from many places--theUnited States, Europe, Canada, Latin America, even .1fidia and Persia.In contrast to late nineteenth century educational practice, theJournal favored a more humane pedagogy and a more practical curriculumwhich recognized the latest scientific and technical developments.Itfostered debate of these ideas, which led, toward the end of thisperiod, to actual testing of some of the alternatives in schools.Barnard was also extremely influential in the creation and earlyshaping of the Bureau of Education, the forerunner of the present-dayUnited States Office of Education.When "An Act to Establish a
I2.Department of Education" was passed by Congress in 1867, its chiefpurpose of "collecting such statistics and facts as shall show thecondition and progress of education in the several states andterritories, and of diffusing information respecting the organizationand management of schools and school systems, and methods of teaching"reflected Barnard's concerns and influence.-Barnard was appointed the first Commissioner of Education and servedfor three years.His successors, John Eston and William T. Harris,vigorously expanded Barnard's efforts to collect educational statisticsand bringing together educational materials from the nations of theWest.Thus, in the first major period of American educationalresearch, the focus of curriculum reformers was largely discussionof European ideas, and the Federal role was essentially that ofcollecting, collating, and disseminating facts.II.The Period of Empiricism (1895-1938)The 1890's began a period of increasing scientific exploration ofsocial and natural phenomena.this general mood.Not surprisingly,.education reflectedIt became a matter for scientific investigation,controlled experiment, and rational reform.During this periodThorndike and other psychologists drew practical recommendationsfrom studies of learning; Franklin Bobbitt and other curriculumdevelopers revised courses of study on the basis of systematicobservations of contemporary society; and George Strayer and otheradministrators formulated policy recommendations based on quantitative
3.This was also the period when William Jameseducational data.communicated a store of practical ideas to educators, and G. StanleyHall became a pioneer in data gathering and child study methods.Thisscientific emphasis led to reforms in American edutation.Previously the student's chief task was to master a particular,body-of knowledge through incessant drill and discipline; now hisschooling became more flexible.Between 1890 and 1940, the rangeof instructional methods came to embrace laboratories, field trips,visual aids, and school libraries.Elective systems. with manyschool subjects became popular, and consolidated high schools offeringvocational- as well as academic curricula were established.Vocationalguidance programs and more general diagnostic and psychologicalservices became frequent, and school buildings began to be designedfor educational efficiency and to conform to high standards.A host of famous educational reformers sponsored these changes-John Dewey, Thorstein Veblen, Paul Monore, and Joseph Mayer Rice,to be followed soon after by Charles H. Judd, Lewis Terman,George Strayer, and Ellwood P. Cubberley.From these mencametrenchant social criticisms, new devices for data collection and,analyses, and energetic surveys of school practice.They presided'over the emergence of graduate study in education, notably atTeachers College of Columbia University, the University of Chicago,
4.and Stanford University.They set the patterns for state, city, anduniversity research bureaus that sprang up across the country, and forlaboratory schools that were modeled on the Dewey venture at theUniversity of Chicago:Joseph Mayer Rice is often credited as the founder of empiricalscholarship in education.In an 1895 version of today's NationalAssessment of Educational Progress, spelling tests developed byRice were administered to some 16,000 students.The purpose was toexamine the relationship between spelling instruction and performance.Other American educators also promoted testing in schools.-Studentsof Thornlike and Hall explored applications of Binet's method ofintelligence testing.Terman showed that intelligence tests correspondedwith other evidence of school success and success in life.He challengedschool practices that held children to a uniform curricula and did notallow children to maximize their varied potentials.Schools came toaccept the IQ as an index of what could be expected of the child,the high IQ a predictor of scholastic success and the "subnormal" IQindicating a need for special educational help.Another major event in the history of educational research was thefounding of John Dewey's Laboratory School at the University of Chicagoin 1896.Dewey was a firm advocate of psychological research as ameans of understanding education, and his laboratory school was an
5.attempt to work out practical techniques that others could .initiate.The school was designed as a place to test educational hypothesesin practice.Laboratory schools remained popular for testing newpractices throughout the beginning of the 20th century.By thelate 1930's, however, educators began ,to favor the more naturalsetting of typical public schools.The period from 1895 to 1938 also saw the rise of school surveysas the prime method of determining needed education reform.Surveysbecame a feature of school management with teams of professors andexperienced administrators from other communities coming in to review local school systems.Them studies were commissioned bysuperintendents who desired guidance, by other superintendents whowanted to initiate change and required ammunition for their campaign,and by lay critics who suspected that their schools were in need ofreform.The US Office of Education also sponsored a number of surveysi,including nationwide studies of lang-grant colleges and universities,Negro higher education, secondary schools, teacher training.institutiods,and school finance.III.Educational Research Assumes a Pragmatic Action Orientation (1938-1954)Skreral forces led to a -decline.in educational research from 1938-1954:One depressing influence'was the gradual separation of the field of.education from other areas in the artsand sciences. which actuallya
6.had begun as early as 1900.Before that time, a fairly warm spiritof cooperation had marked the relation between academic scholars and professional educators.A rift developed between the more pragmatically-oriented educators and the more traditionally-oriented academicians, however,and by 1940 the separation was nearly complete.There were exceptions,to be sure, but the field of educational sociology, educationalpsychology, educational philosophy and educational history generallybecame specializations splintered from the main body-of their disciplines.General social and economic conditions also contributed to the declineof educational R&D.Minimal resources during depression years had tobe spent on essential educational services.Later, the war, and sharprises in enrollments after it, drew resources to locating and trainingteachers.When research and development did begin to revive, educationalscientism of the 1920's had run its course.Data collection mightidentify faults, but not provide remedies, and a new emphasis onclinical psychology and mental health research was much less threateningto practitioners.The new focus allowed opposition to tradition andstandardization, and set the stage for a new period of researchinvolvement.Thus, with education established as a separate field and data .collectionstudios at a low ebb, research activity as an agent of change replacedthe vision of research as strict empirical inquiry.A well knownexample of this shift is the eight year study of the ProgressiveEducation Association.It's purpose was to determine whether subject
7.requirements for college entrance were justified.These requirements wereeliminated in a selected group of schools and their students admitted tocollege withGut the usual prerequisites.The fact that college successdid not seem impaired encouraged experimentation in new teaching and'counseling procedures.Most of the change-oriented studies were not of this large scale,however.Between the late 1930's and the early 1950's, "actionresearch" was a new kind of activity which absorbed at least as much professional effort as more conventional inquiry and attracted far moreattention in the schools.Personsseeking to change instruction setup projects in local schools under the leadership of visiting university professors. ,Cooperating teachers would identify some suspettedinadequacy in their local program, collect facts by means of fairlyunsophisticated instruments, plan some change on the basis of thefacts, carry it out, and collect :follow-up data.The goal of thisaction research was to explore new methods and content of educationin order to promote change in teaching approaches.Its shortcomingslay not in this goal, but in the local emphasis and lack of sophisticationand discipline of the studies.were needed.Clearly national direction and support
I8.IV.The Emergence of a Major Federal Role (1954-Present)1954 marked the emergence of a major role for the Federal government in educational research.In that year the 83rd Congresspassed the Cooperative Research Act authorizing the Commissionerof Education to enterversities,into financial agreements with colleges, uni-and State educational agencies for research, surveys anddemonstrations in the field of education.Also in 1954, the NationalScience Foundation provided its first support for course contentimprovement activities aimed at t7ne improvement of mathematics andscience instruction in the nation's elementary and secondaryschools;The National Science Foundation was established to facilitate theinimprovement of education/the sciences.Immediately after theFoundation was organized, an investigation of the nature andstatus of science education in the United States was begun.Oneof the major discoveries was the gross inadequacy of instructionalmaterials available to teachers.
9.The high school level was chosen by NSF as the first place to beginimprovement activities.It was the earliest level at which theseveral sciences are typically taught as discrete and separatesubjects, and thus could be dealt with separately without a massivedisturbance of the educational system.In more recent years, theFoundation has moved to the support of activities at the collegelevel and the elementary grades, as well as experimentation withcomputers in instruction.The original legislation which set up the United States Office ofEducation had always been interpreted to include research as a majorfunction.The passage of the Cooperative Research Act, signed byPresident Eisenhower on July 26, 1954, brought the research functioncloser to reality.Support was not provided under the CooperativeResearch Act immediately following its 1954 passage, however.InJune 1956, the Congress appropriated 1,020,190 under the CooperativeResearch Act.Of this sum, 675,000 was earmitrked for research onthe education of the mentally retarded.In the early years, Cooperative Research was expected to be responsiveto the interests of researchers, rather than to exert missionoriented leadership.Consequently, areas needing investigationfrequently were under-represented in proposals submitted forconsideration.
10.Since development and dissemination were not authorized in theoriginal Act, research products rarely reached the classroom."Research" was primarily of two kinds:(1) surveys 9r statusstudies, and (2) investigations by educational psychologists."Educational research specialistscompetent to evaluateproposals," as required in the legislation, were almostexclusively psychologists, as were most of the applicants.To meet authorization requirements, the first curriculum work andsome dissemination activities were justified as.research components.However, Classroom teachers and local school siste6s-wtte nod'eligible for grants and hence were slow to implement the resultsproduced by universities.To provide for a coherent program of research in areas of major,chronic problems, two R&D centers were established in FY 1964:The Learning Research and Development Center at the Universityof Pittsburgh, and the Center for the Advanced Study of EducationalAdministration, at the University of Oregon.These were able topull together scattered research in their mission areas, fill thegaps, and systematically pursue needed lines of additional investigation.Additional centers were added in subsequent yearsto investigate other areas.In Jpite of the limitations inherent in the early CooperativeResearch Act, the results were sufficiently promising that support,,-----7,
11.was provided under other authorizationsto make additional fundsavailable'for research, development, diSsemination, and trainingin specialized areas.These pro
DOCUMENT RESUME ED 088 800 SP 007 647 AUTHOR Knox, Holly TITLE A History of Educational Research in the United. States. PUB DATE' Sep 71 NOTE. 17p. rEDRS PRICE. MF- 0.75 HC- 1.50
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