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Biological DiversityConservation and the LawLegal Mechanisms for ConservingSpecies and EcosystemsCyrille de Klemmin collaboration withClare ShineEnvironmental Policy and Law Paper No. 29IUCNThe World Conservation Union

Biological Diversity Conservationand the LawLegal Mechanisms for Conserving Speciesand Ecosystems

IUCN – THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNIONIUCN – The World Conservation Union brings together States, government agencies and adiverse range of non-governmental organisations in a unique world partnership: some 770members in all, spread across 123 countries.As a union, IUCN exists to serve its members - to represent their views on the world stageand to provide them with the concepts, strategies and technical support they need to achieve theirgoals. Through its six Commissions, IUCN draws together over 5000 expert volunteers inproject teams and action groups. A central secretariat coordinates the IUCN Programme andleads initiatives on the conservation and sustainable use of the world's biological diversity andthe management of habitats and natural resources, as well as providing a range of services. TheUnion has helped many countries to prepare National Conservation Strategies, and demonstratesthe application of its knowledge through the field projects it supervises. Operations areincreasingly decentralised and are carried forward by an expanding network of regional andcountry offices, located principally in developing countries.IUCN - The World Conservation Union seeks above all to work with its members to achievedevelopment that is sustainable and that provides a lasting improvement in the quality of life forpeople all over the world.

Biological Diversity Conservationand the LawLegal Mechanisms for Conserving Speciesand EcosystemsCyrille de Klemmin collaboration withClare ShineIUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper No. 29IUCN Environmental Law CentreIUCN Biodiversity ProgrammeIUCN – The World Conservation Union1993

Published by:IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UKIUCN Environmental Law Centre, Adenauerallee 214, D-5300 Bonn 1,GermanyIUCN Biodiversity Programme, Rue Mauverney 28, CH-1196, Gland,SwitzerlandIUCNThe World Conservation UnionCopyright:(1993) International Union for Conservation of Nature and NaturalResourcesReproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercialpurposes is authorised without prior permission from the copyright holder.Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibitedwithout the prior written permission of the copyright holder.Citation:de Klemm, C. and Shine, C. (1993), Biological Diversity Conservationand the Law, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xix 292 pp.ISBN:2-8317-0192-9Text layout by:IUCN Publications Services Unit, Cambridge, UK, on desktop publishingequipment purchased through a gift from Mrs Julia WardCover photo:Ujung Kulon NP, West Java, Indonesia: WWF/Anton FernhoutCover design by: IUCN Publications Services UnitPrinted by:Page Brothers (Norwich) Ltd, Norwich, UKAvailable from:IUCN Publications Services Unit219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 0DL, UKorIUCN Communications and Corporate Relations DivisionRue Mauverney 28, CH-1196 Gland, SwitzerlandThe presentation of material in this book and the geographical designations employed do notimply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal statusof any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of itsfrontiers or boundaries.The views of the authors expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN.The text of this book is printed on Fineblade Cartridge 90gsm made from low chlorine pulp

ContentsForewordEditorial prefaceINTRODUCTION: THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONALCONSERVATION LAWA.B.C.D.The Principle of National Sovereignty over Natural ResourcesThe Formation of a Consensus to Conserve Natural ResourcesThe Main Soft Law InstrumentsTreaties and other Binding Instruments1.Early Treaties2.Regional Treaties and Other Instrumentsa.Africab.Americac.Europei. The Berne Conventionii. The Benelux Conventionsiii. European Community Legislationiv. The Alpine Conventiond.Asiae.The Pacificf.Regional Seasg.Areas beyond National Jurisdiction: the Antarctic3.Sectoral Treatiesa.Treaties dealing with Speciesi. Species whose Range is Shared by Several Statesii. Migratory Speciesiii. Treaties regulating the Trade in Wild Speciesiv. Treaties regulating the Exploitation of Wild Speciesb.Area-Based Conservation Treaties4.The Law of the Sea Convention5.The Convention on Biological Diversitya.The Background to the Adoption of the Conventionb.The Principles of the Conventionc.The Scope of the Convention and the Main ConservationObligationsd.The Mechanisms of the Conventione.The Provision of Financial Resources under the Conventionf.Relationship with other 13141517171921222324v

PART I: SPECIES-BASED CONSERVATION AND THE LAWI.THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF SPECIESA. Species Conservation Treaties1.Early TreatiesRegional Treaties and Other Instruments2.Africaa.Americab.c.Europei. The Berne Convention of 1979ii. The European Community Legislationiii. The Alpine ConventionAsiad.e.Regional Seasf.Areas beyond National Jurisdiction: the AntarcticSectoral Treaties: Migratory Species3.a.b.c.d.e.f.Species other than BirdsEarly Bird TreatiesThe EC Birds DirectiveBilateral TreatiesThe Global Treaty on Migratory Species: the Bonn Conventionof 1979The North American SystemB. The Mechanisms of Species Conservation Treaties1.2.The Technique of Species Conservation TreatiesThe Implementation of Species Conservation TreatiesC. Exploitation Treaties1.The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling2.3.The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine LivingResources (CCAMLR)Incidental Taking by Large Drift Nets4.Conventions for the Regulation of 4454747484950D. The Convention on Biological Diversity50E. Rights and Responsibilities of States for the Conservation of Species511.2.3.4.5.viThe Foundations and Definition of ResponsibilityProblems of Developing an International Status for SpeciesPerformance Obligations arising from State ResponsibilityThe Special Case of Migratory SpeciesThe Rights of States over Species5153545555

II.THE SCOPE OF STATE POWERS TO CONSERVE WILD SPECIESA. The Legal Basis for Legislation to Conserve Species1.2.The Legal Status of Wild Animals and PlantsThe Regulatory Powers of the Statea.Hunting Legislationb.Fishing Legislationc.Legislation protecting Plantsd.Nature Conservation LegislationB. Jurisdiction over Species1.2.III.Subject-Matter Jurisdictiona.Jurisdiction based on the Type of Environmenti. The Inadequate Definition of Speciesii. Jurisdictional Splits based on the Movements of Speciesiii. Administrative Resistance to Jurisdictional Changesb.Jurisdiction over Game and Non-Game Speciesc.Wild Plantsd.Other Jurisdictional SplitsTerritorial Jurisdictiona.Primary Jurisdiction of the Federal Governmentb.Primary Jurisdiction of the Federated Entities or Regionsc.Concurrent Jurisdiction at Central and Regional Leveld.Returning Jurisdiction to Central Governmente.Other Examples of Jurisdictional Separationsf.Complexities of Jurisdiction over Marine SpeciesTHE LISTING PROCESSA. The Content of Lists1.2.3.4.5.6.Legislative Criteria for SelectionTaxa or Categories of Species which may be Listeda.Taxonomic Levelsb.Categories of Species or TaxaPositive and Negative ListsCategories of Protected SpeciesThe Inclusion of Non-Indigenous SpeciesTaxonomic ProblemsB. Listing Procedures1.2.3.The Right of InitiativePublic ConsultationDelisting ProceduresC. The Evolution of 07172757575777777787980808181828484vii

IV.TAKINGA. Taking Prohibitions or Full Protection1.2.Animalsa.The General Exclusion of Unintentional Takingb.Categories of Species and Taking Prohibitionsc.Specific Exemptions to Taking Prohibitionsd.Exceptions in Favour of Subsistence Hunters and FishermenPlantsB. Taking Restrictions or Partial e ExploitationHunting RightsGame Speciesa.Total Bansb. Time Limitations: Open and Close Seasonsc.Area Limitations: Closed Areasd.Limitations on the Number of Hunterse.Restrictions on Animals that may be Takeni. Sex and Ageii. Bag Limitsf.Hunting Methodsg.Hunting Licencesh.Game ManagementFresh Water FishingPlantsa.Mushroomsb.Other Plantsc.The Collection of Wild Plants by the PublicMarine Fisheriesa.Traditional Fisheriesb.General Regulation of Commercial Fisheriesc.Sporting or Recreational FisheriesSpecies causing 00101103104104104104105105106107108TRADE111A. Domestic Trade1111.2.3.viiiProhibitions on Trade in Protected SpeciesRestrictions or Prohibitions on Trade in Partially Protected SpeciesLicensing of Certain Activities111111113

4.5.Wild Animals in Captivitya.Public Health and Safetyb.Animal Welfarec.Captive Breeding and Artificial PropagationTrade in Federal StatesB. International Trade1.2.3.VI.ExportsImportsInternational 21A. Practical Difficulties of Enforcement121B. Penalties for Offences under Conservation Legislation122VII.125INTEGRATED SPECIES PROTECTIONA. Restrictive Measures for the Protection of Species' Habitats1.2.3.Automatic Habitat ProtectionDiscretionary Protection of Species' HabitatsDamaging Processes and Activities125125129130B. Positive Measures for the Protection of Species131VIII. CONCLUSION133A. Endangered Species133B. Exploited Species1351.2.3.Unit ManagementRational ManagementEcological Management136136137PART II: AREA-BASED CONSERVATION AND THE LAWI.THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF PROTECTED AREASA. Treaties1.Treaties laying down Obligations to establish Protected Areasa.African Conventionb.Western Hemisphere Conventionc.South Pacific Conventiond.ASEAN Agreemente.The Protected Areas Protocols to Regional Seas Conventions141141141141141141142142ix

2.Instruments laying down Performance Obligationsa.The Global Conventionsb.The European Conventionc.The European Community Directivesd.The Nature and Implementation of the Performance ObligationB. International Networks of Protected Areas1.143143144144145148International Instrumentsa.Networks that are not based on Lists having Legal Effectsb.Networks based on Lists having Legal Effectsc.The European Community NetworksInternational Organisationsa.Biosphere Reserves148148149151152152b.Council of Europe154C. Transfrontier Protected Areas155D. Areas beyond National Jurisdiction1.The High Seas2.The Antarctic160160161E. The Convention on Biological Diversity162II.1652.BASIC LEGAL INSTRUMENTS FOR AREA-BASED CONSERVATIONA. Introduction165B. Public Ownership1671.2.3.4.The Acquisition of Land by Public Agencies for the Purpose of Conservationa.Capacity to Acquireb.Right of Pre-emptionc.Tax Incentivesd.Compulsory Purchasee.Special Financial MeasuresAlienationAdvantages and Disadvantages of Public OwnershipEasements169169169169170170171171172C. Regulatory Measures173D. Conclusion: The Need for Voluntary Measures174x

III. CONVENTIONAL TYPES OF PROTECTED AREAS177A. Introduction177B. Protected Area Legislation1781.2.3.General ConsiderationsThe Perennity Objectivea.Treatiesb.Constitutionsc.Provisions instituting Stricter Abolition ProceduresThe Integrity Objectivea.Activities within Protected Areasi. Prohibitions and Restrictionsii. Persons affected by Prohibitions or Restrictionsb.Outside Activities affecting Protected Areasi. Buffer Zonesii. Beyond the Buffer ZoneC. The Management of Protected Areas1.2.a.b.3.IntroductionManagement BodiesCentralised ManagementDecentralised ManagementManagement Rulesa.Zoningb.Management PlansD. The Integration of Protected Areas into their Physical, Economic and SocialSurroundings1.2.Protected Areas and Physical PlanningProtected Areas and their Social and Economic 191191192192193193194195195196E. Conclusion197IV.199INNOVATIVE SITE-SPECIFIC INSTRUMENTSA. Wilderness Areas1991.The Wilderness Concept1992.Wilderness Legislation200B. Conservation Orders201C. The Granting of a Special Legal Status to all Areas of ConservationImportance204xi

V.NON-SITE-SPECIFIC REGULATORY INSTRUMENTSA. Habitat Types and Landscape Features1.2.3.207207ForestsWetlandsOther Habitat Types and Landscape Features207209211B. Discussion of the Permit System as applied to Habitat Types214VI.219PROTECTED LANDSCAPES AND NATURE PARKSA. Introduction219B. Nature Park Legislation220C. Conclusion228VII. PLANNING CONTROL INSTRUMENTS229A. Area-Based Planning Instruments2291.2.3.IntroductionAreasOperationsB. Activity-Based Planning Instruments : The Role of Environmental ImpactAssessments (EIAs)1.2.3.4.Field of ApplicationThe Content of EIAsThe Review of EIAsThe Effects of EIAs229230232234234237237238VIII. VOLUNTARY CONSERVATION239A. Conservation by Individual Landowners or Occupiers2391.2.3.Unilateral CommitmentsIncentives and DisincentivesContractsa.Leasesb.Easements or Servitudesc.Management AgreementsB. Assistance to Conservation NGOs for the Acquisition, Preservation andManagement of Land1.2.3.xiiVoluntary ReservesNational TrustsTax Exemptions and Subsidies239240242242243245251252253254

IX.THE CONSERVATION OF MARINE AND COASTAL AREAS257A. General Legal Considerations257B. The Sea259C. The Shore263D. Bringing Land and Sea Together265X.CONCLUSION269GENERAL CONCLUSION273A. The Legitimacy of Conservation Legislation273B. The Precautionary Principle276C. A Proposed New System of Liability for Damage to Biological Diversitycaused by Public or Private Persons277D. The Position of Developing Countries281BIBLIOGRAPHY283SELECTIVE INDEX285xiii

ForewordPlants and animals, evolving over hundreds of millions of years, have made our planet fit for theforms of life we know today. They he

The Global Treaty on Migratory Species: the Bonn Convention of 1979 The North American System B. The Mechanisms of Species Conservation Treaties 1. The Technique of Species Conservation Treaties 2. The Implementation of Species Conservation Treaties C. Exploitation Treaties 1. The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 2.

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