North Carolina Archaeology
North CarolinaArchaeologyVolume 602011
North Carolina ArchaeologyVolume 60October 2011CONTENTSNorth Carolina’s Redware Kilns and the Art of Burning ClayLinda F. Carnes-McNaughton . 1Archaeofaunal Remains from Garden Creek Mound No. 2(31Hw2) in Haywood County, North CarolinaThomas R. Whyte . 53Buried, Exhumed, and Commemoratively Reinterred: The Rediscoveryof Lost Confederate Soldiers at Bentonville Battlefield State Historic SiteThomas E. Beaman, Jr., John J. Mintz, Kenneth W. Robinson,and Alison L. Mintz . 65“To Describe the Horrors of this Hurricane is Beyond the Art of My Pen”:Archaeological Evidence of the September 1769 Hurricane That BlewNorth Carolinians Off Their Tar HeelsThomas E. Beaman, Jr. and and Jim McKee . 90About the Authors . 116
North Carolina Archaeology(formerly Southern Indian Studies)Published jointlybyThe North Carolina Archaeological Society, Inc.109 East Jones StreetRaleigh, NC 27601-2807andThe Research Laboratories of ArchaeologyUniversity of North CarolinaChapel Hill, NC 27599-3120R. P. Stephen Davis, Jr., EditorOfficers of the North Carolina Archaeological SocietyPresident: Tommy Stine, 1923-36th Avenue NE, Hickory NC 28601.Vice President: Butch “Archie” Smith, 143 Cobble Ridge Drive, Pittsboro, NC 27312.Secretary: Linda Carnes-McNaughton, Dept of the Army, Public Works Business Center (AFZA-PW-E)(Carnes), Fort Bragg Garrison Command (ABN), Installation Management Agency, Fort Bragg,NC 28310.Treasurer: E. William Conen, 804 Kingswood Dr., Cary, NC 27513.Editor: R. P. Stephen Davis, Jr., Research Laboratories of Archaeology, CB 3120, Alumni Building,University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3120.Associate Editor (Newsletter): Dee Nelms, Office of State Archaeology, N.C. Division of Archivesand History, 4619 Mail Service Center, Raleigh, NC 27699-4619.At-Large Members:Tony Boudreaux, Department of Anthropology, 287 Flanagan Building, East Carolina University,Greenville, NC 27858-4353.Kevin Donald, Office of State Archaeology, N.C. Division of Archivesand History, 4619 MailService Center, Raleigh, NC 27699-4619.Joel Hardison, USDA Forest Service, Uwharrie/Croatan National Forests, 789 NC Hwy 24/27 E,Troy North Carolina 27371-8331.Theresa McReynolds, 10716 Peppermill Drive, Raleigh, NC 27614.Clay Swindell, 226 Ibis Way, Elizabeth City, NC 27909.Information for SubscribersNorth Carolina Archaeology is published once a year in October. Subscription is by membership inthe North Carolina Archaeological Society, Inc. Annual dues are 15.00 for regular members, 25.00 forsustaining members, 10.00 for students, 20.00 for families, 250.00 for life members, 250.00 forcorporate members, and 25.00 for institutional subscribers. Members also receive two issues of theNorth Carolina Archaeological Society Newsletter. Membership requests, dues, subscriptions, changes ofaddress, and back issue orders should be directed to: Dee Nelms, Office of State Archaeology, N.C.Division of Archives and History, 4619 Mail Service Center, Raleigh, NC 27699-4619.Information for AuthorsNorth Carolina Archaeology publishes articles on the archaeology of North Carolina and neighboringstates. One copy of each manuscript, with accompanying tables, figures, and bibliography, should besubmitted to the Editor. Manuscripts should be double spaced with ample margins throughout. Styleshould conform to guidelines American Antiquity (see eGuide/styleguide.pdf). The Editor can assist those wishing to submit a manuscript but who areunfamiliar with American Antiquity style.
NORTH CAROLINA’S REDWARE KILNSAND THE ART OF BURNING CLAYbyLinda F. Carnes-McNaughtonAbstractThis paper summarizes archaeological investigations and historical researchof North Carolina’s redware pottery kilns. Temporal and regional variants ofearthenware kilns are provided, along with interpretative information aboutthe clay clans who operated these furnaces. Basic descriptive explanations ofturning, glazing, and decorating redwares are given, and the methods bywhich these redwares were stacked, fired, and unloaded from the kilns arediscussed. Drawing from discoveries made during the 1960s to 1980s andaugmented by recent “rediscoveries” over the past two decades of NorthCarolina’s backcountry redware production, this article lays the foundationfor future research to document more fully these early craftsmen and theirworkshop sites, and to trace the traditions and continuity of this cottageindustry through generational potters and communities across North Carolina.A potter’s kiln is an abracadabra chamber where raw wares, oftenglazed and sometimes decorated, are surrendered by the potter toundergo a metamorphosis by fire. Myriad pyrotechnic variablesassociated with this metamorphosis have for centuries caused pottersgreat consternation, so much so that in some cultures clouds ofsuperstition still surround the process. Whether the forces at work arenatural or cultural, mysterious or powerful, the expectant potter confrontsthe unloading of a fired kiln with great anticipation and some trepidation.Voila moments come soon after a sealed furnace’s door is opened, whenthe potter first peers inside to measure the magic in his or her pots. If thefiring is successful, the creation process transforming raw clay tofinished pot is complete. If the firing is disastrous, the magic is missing,the potter feels his or her efforts were futile, and the long process hasfailed.KilnsAs the primary specialized structures used to burn raw wares tocreate pottery, kilns are designed with the final product in mind, be it1
NORTH CAROLINA ARCHAEOLOGY [Vol. 60, 2011]earthenware, stoneware, or porcelain ceramics. Thus, kilns are the mostcommon and essential architectural feature on pottery production sites.They are by far the potter’s most valuable piece of equipment.Differences in shape, size, proportion, method of air transfer, materials ofconstruction, position on the landscape, fireboxes, and exits for exhaustare all critical components of the desired design of any kiln. Thesevariables are directly related to the desired temperature andenvironmental control within the kiln chamber. Traditional kiln typesfound in America are categorized by how the heated air is transferredthrough the ware chamber during the firing process, the simplest beingupdraft and then crossdraft, followed by the more sophisticateddowndraft models. Kilns designed for the firing of stoneware andporcelain bodies must be able to withstand intense heat ( 2300 degreesF) and the subsequent expansion and contraction of the structural walls,floor, vault, and doorways. Kilns used for lower-fired earthenware mustwithstand some of these same factors, but to a lesser degree. So, forexample, early earthenware was typically fired in a round or squareupdraft kiln with a centralized chimney exit, while higher-firedstoneware was successfully produced in downdraft kilns, sometimesequipped with detached, tall chimneys critical for exhaust. Each of thesestyles could have one or two exterior fireports around the perimeter,depending on its size. The rectangular groundhog kiln, a crossdraftdesign with the firebox located on the down slope and an integralchimney positioned on the upslope, could be adjusted to fire eitherearthenware or stoneware successfully, but was most often used forstoneware production in North Carolina. European prototypes have beendocumented for each of these kilns designs, and they were utilized byAmerican potters with some regionally characteristic modifications.Kilns were sometimes placed inside a potter’s shop or shop annex,or as was often the case, they were placed outside away from the shopwith a shed roof covering them to minimize the erosional effects ofweathering. They might be positioned on flat ground or on a slope,depending on the type of kiln. Most groundhog kilns, for example, werebuilt on a gentle slope and were semi-subterranean to take advantage ofearthen buttressing and a cross draft flow of air. Construction materialsranged from handmade brick to local fieldstone, or a combination ofboth, which were sometimes reinforced with metal banding for structuralsupport. The number of fireports and entryways varied according to kilnstyle. The number of ware chambers within a kiln was related to thetype, height, and size of the furnace (i.e., tall-round bottle and beehive2
NORTH CAROLINA’S REDWARE KILNSFigure 1. Illustration of a sixteenth-century kiln, from The Three Books of the Potter’sArt, by Ciprianno Piccalpasso of Durante, c. 1556.kilns, or long-rectangular kilns) as well as the type of wares being fired(i.e., bisque versus glazed earthenware). And finally, the type of fuelused to burn the kiln was dependent on the regional natural resourcesavailable to a particular potter, whether it was wood or coal, and for latermodern kilns, gas or oil. Given these many variables, it can easily beseen that through the course of history, many potters of the eighteenthand nineteenth centuries could envision kilns as structures whichembodied organic, fire-breathing spirits, revered and feared for theirpower, mystery, and magic (Figure 1).3
NORTH CAROLINA ARCHAEOLOGY [Vol. 60, 2011]Wares, Glazes, and SlipsIn order to better understand archaeological examples ofearthenware kilns so far found in North Carolina, a brief explanation ofthe type of ware fired in these kilns, and the principles of production ofthese wares, is useful. For example, the term earthenware is used here todescribe an encompassing array of low-fired utilitarian ceramics, oftenmade of gray to tan to red, naturally-colored clay. Use of the termredware, common amongst early potters, is a vernacular name given towheel-turned or pressed red-bodied earthenware, primarily tablewares,storage vessels and presentation pieces. The clays used to makeearthenware pottery contain, in varying quantities, silica, alumina, andwater, along with other minerals and impurities to a lesser degree, suchas oxides of iron, manganese, calcium, sodium, potassium, and titanium.The red paste or red body of earthenware is created by the inclusion ofiron minerals in the clay which, when fired, makes the paste reddish incolor. Red clay exists nearly everywhere in the world, and based onancient archaeological finds in Egypt, Greece, Italy, England andAmerica, it appears that it has been used globally since the genesis ofpottery production. Earthenware clays contain less silica and moreimpurities than stoneware or porcelain clays. These two variablesdirectly affect the firing temperature (and thus the kiln design) and theprocess required to successfully produce a useful earthenware pot.As seen in the chart in Figure 2, the physical properties ofearthenware are mutually related to each other. For example, the red-toorange color of the body is a result of iron and other mineral inclusions;the opacity (sometimes called the diaphaneity) of the clay is also relatedto its impurities; and the low firing temperature of 1800 degrees F isrelated to the nature of the clay body. The fact that earthenware potteryis permeable (or porous) means it must be glazed in order to hold liquids(as with storage containers). And consequently, the type of glaze used tocoat these wares must be compatible with the firing and meltingtemperature of the clay, thus explaining the early and consistent use oflow-melting lead glazes on earthenware ceramics made during colonialAmerica (ca. 1700s) and into the early 1900s in North Carolina.Finally, the fact that earthenware is low-fired and porous relates tohow fragile it is even after firing, making the rate of breakageproportionally higher than that of utilitarian stonewares or the delicate4
NORTH CAROLINA’S REDWARE KILNSFigure 2. Chart of Physical Properties of Ceramics and Glazes. Created by CarnesMcNaughton.porcelains which in colonial days were used sparingly by backcountryhomesteaders. Despite their fragility and the presence of toxic leadglaze, earthenware vessels were used because they held heat well andexcelled as baking and cooking containers. Also, because earthenwareclays were readily available, these wares were much cheaper tomanufacture than stoneware or porcelain wares whose clays were moredifficult to locate and mine.Lead glaze, as used on eighteenth and nineteenth century NorthCarolina earthenware, was made from lead ore often obtained by thepotter through purchase or barter since it did not naturally occur in greatquantities in the state. The lump ore had to be crushed in a stone milland filtered or run through a sieve to remove inclusions before beingmixed with water, clay slip, and other ingredients to render it useful.Greenware (slowly dried, unfired ware) was then dipped into this slurry,once or more, to produce an opaque coating which turned “glost”through the firing stage. Larger pots, too big for dipping, were coated by5
NORTH CAROLINA ARCHAEOLOGY [Vol. 60, 2011]swabbing or painting the glaze mixture onto the interior and/or exteriorof the vessel, depending upon its intended use (e.g., milk crocks wereoften only glazed on the interior, while plate forms were sometimesglazed only on their top surface and not the underside). Formulas forlead glazing were well-kept secrets of the trade amongst potters andpottery families. Historical records from the state’s Moravian pottersindicate they preferred a formula of red lead ground and mixed withkaolin and flint. The kaolin (a high-grade, often white dense clay) wasused to stiffen the glaze, preventing it from running or slipping from theclay surface. Although more typically found in European potteryworkshops, the use of ground lead ore, once sifted, could be sprinkled onthe pots to form a glassy coating (resulting in a “speckled” appearance)(Zug 1986:169). Other mineral oxides could be ground, sifted, andadded to the lead glaze to obtain a desired color. Iron was used forbrown tones and manganese for dark brown-purple hues. Mostutilitarian lead-glazed earthenwares bear earthy warm tones of brown,ochre, yellow, orange, and red. Reduction firing of lead-glazed warescould often produce a dark olive green color (Zug 1986:4).Utilized primarily for decorative purposes, colored slip clays weresometimes applied to outer or top surfaces of earthenwares and thensealed with a top coating of clear lead glaze, as commonly seen ineighteenth and nineteenth century redwares made in North Carolina. Bydefinition, a slip is essentially a liquefied solution of clay and water. Foran overall coating the slip was applied to the greenware or unfiredearthenware body by dipping the vessel into the mixture, or byswabbing/painting the slurry onto the overall surface (like the surface ofa plate to prepare it for decoration). When slip was used as a decorativeelement it was done by trailing the solution onto a pot or plate using aspecial container known as a slip cup which functioned much like a cakeicing applicator. Clays used for slips needed to be plastic (or malleable)but stiff enough not to run off the pot once applied. The water helped theclay to become plastic while it also reduced air bubbles. Silica in theclay, along with iron oxides, helped to reduce shrinkage of the slip andmelted the paste or body components together during the firing process.The clay used for slips was pulverized or crushed and then mixed withwater, and sometimes ground again to increase its fineness (Grigsby1993:13).Slip clays and lead glazes were colored by adding different mineralsor other clays to the mixture before making the pot or decorating it with6
NORTH CAROLINA’S REDWARE KILNSslip. For example, potter Hal E. Pugh (personal communication 2006)has described these known ingredients used for colorants as follows:kaolin to produce a white to cream to yellow glaze; red clay to produce acolor similar to that made with iron oxide; iron oxide (cream to yellow todark brown) to produce a yellow to green to amber glaze; copper oxide(light to dark green) to yield a green to black glaze; manganese oxide(purple to brown) to create a dark purple to purple-brown metallic glaze;and cobalt oxide (various shades of blue) to produce a bright blue toblack glaze.Once the slip was applied by use of a slip applicator (or “trailer”)made of horn, wood, pottery, or leather, and fitted with a hollow tube(such as a quill or reed), a lead glaze was then applied over the dried slipdesign before final firing. Sometimes the trailer held a single color ofslip, but specially designed trailers of the eighteenth and nineteenthcenturies held two or three colored slips in separate chambers, controlledby simple gravity feed or air flow through the nozzle. The trailed slipwas allowed to dry before the final coating of lead glaze (sometimesclarified by adding arsenic) was applied to the finished piece (Grigsby1993:16–19).Other Old World decorative techniques found on lead-glazedearthenware, but not commonly used by North Carolina’s backcountry orMoravian potters, are marbling (or joggling), relief molding, combing,and sgraffito. Marbling is achieved by applying two or more coloredslips onto a surface and then sharply twisting (or joggling) it to createabstract patterns on the surface of the vessel. Relief molding was doneby pressing the clay into concave decorative molds (typically plateforms). This technique was popular in the northeastern United States andwas used frequently in England, while only the Moravian potters ofNorth Carolina used it for the production of flasks, figurines, sifters, andvases, often in zoomorphic designs. Combing, also known as feathering,was done by dragging a feather or stylus through two or more lines ofsemi-liquid slip of contrasting colors to produce abstract patterns.Finally, sgraffito (an Italian word meaning scratched) was accomplishedby incising lines or patterns through an upper coating of slip to reveal acontrasting color (or darker) slip or clay body underneath (Grigsby1993:62).7
NORTH CAROLINA ARCHAEOLOGY [Vol. 60, 2011]Loading the KilnAfter the manufacture of raw earthenware vessels, plain ordecorated, glazed or unglazed, in myriad forms, the earthenware potter’snext critical step of the process involved loading and burning the kiln.Loading, or charging an earthenware kiln, was a complicated chore(Comstock 1994:41–46). Positioning of the pots in the kiln requiredspecial knowledge, based on skill and experience, failures and successes.Loading a new kiln for the first time was perhaps the riskiest of all, sincea potter could not be sure of the idiosyncrasies of heat and air transferwithin the kiln’s chamber (or chambers). Potters needed to know the hotand cool spots within the vault. It was important to know which potsrequired higher temperatures and which ones could bake with lowertemperatures. The potter had to consider each pot’s thickness, weight,dimensions, and shape in order to determine the best placement withinthe kiln. Large or heavy pieces were often placed on the kiln floor(usually on a bed of crushed quartz gravel to prevent sticking) andsometimes were inverted on their rims to provide better support.Specialized pieces of kiln furniture were made by the potter to be used instacking smaller pieces into columns, called bungs, or to use as props tostabilize and separate larger pieces. Props, wads, spacers, and puggingcoils are names for other types of hand-made kiln furniture, expedientlymade and used by the potter. To prevent sticking to other pots and thechamber floor, wares were sometimes coated in a grog mixture of quartzgravel and sand. The varie
ancient archaeological finds in Egypt, Greece, Italy, England and America, it appears that it has been used globally since the genesis of pottery production. Earthenware clays contain less silica and more impurities than stoneware or porcelain clays. These two variables directly affect the firing temperature (and thus the kiln design) and the
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