Automation In The Long Haul: Challenges And Opportunities .
WORKING PAPER 2018-06Automation in the long haul: Challengesand opportunities of autonomous heavyduty trucking in the United StatesAuthors: Peter Slowik and Ben SharpeDate: March 26, 2018Keywords: Autonomous, heavy-duty vehicles1. IntroductionResearch and development in autonomous vehicle technologies has takenplace for more than two decades,with interest and investment proliferating in recent years sparked bybreakthroughs in sensing, communications, and computing technologies. The majority of investments andmedia attention to date have beenconcentrated in the passenger vehiclespace (Slowik & Kamakaté, 2017), yetthe technologies and their capabilities carry over to freight trucks andthe commercial vehicle sector. Anincreasing number of stakeholdersare actively involved in bringing thistechnology to on-road commercialvehicles—especially, tractor-trailers.With heavy-duty tractor-trailersaccounting for a disproportionatelyhigh share of negative impacts—including local air pollutants, greenhouse gas emissions, and fuel consumption (Sharpe, 2017)—the sectoris ripe for the application of autonomous technology, perhaps even moreso than the passenger vehicle sector.The implications of autonomoustrucking are broad and extend beyondthe trucking sector to include infrastructure, urban planning, cybersecurity, privacy, and insurance. Withinthe freight trucking sector, many seea future where the technology dramatically alters the truck driver ’sresponsibilities and may eventuallyeliminate the need for a driver. Severalindustry groups envision autonomousvehicle technology as an attractivereturn on investment, with potentiallylarge economic benefits. However, theextent of these benefits is generallyunknown to date, and there are alsorisks and drawbacks to adoption ofautonomous trucking. From a typicalfleet perspective, the potential impactsof autonomous trucking include improved on-road safety (i.e.,fewer collisions and fatalities); greater fuel efficiency andreduced emissions (i.e., highermiles-per-gallon); ease of driving (e.g., automationtechnologies increasingly controlvehicle functions); increased operational efficiency(e.g., real-time planning, reducedtruck downtime); and reduced labor costs (i.e., technology reduces or eliminates the needfor human drivers).This paper explores the state of autonomous trucking technology and thebenefits and drawbacks of its adoptionfrom multiple stakeholder perspectives. We are especially interested inhow autonomous technology will affectfuel use and emissions in the on-roadfreight sector This paper is also a firststep toward better understanding theexisting regulatory landscape and thetypes of policy measures needed toresponsibly bring fuel-saving autonomous trucking technology to market.The data and analysis presented in thisstudy focus on North America. Moreresearch is needed to better understand the challenges and opportunitiespresented by autonomous trucking inother regions around the world.Table 1 outlines the levels of automation, as defined by SAE InternationalAcknowledgements: This work is supported by the 11th Hour Project of the Schmidt Family Foundation. Fanta Kamakaté provided valuable input to thedevelopment of this report. Ulises Hernandez, Nic Lutsey, and Rachel Muncrief of the International Council on Clean Transportation and Mike Roeth of theNorth American Council for Freight Efficiency provided critical reviews on an earlier version of the report. Their review does not imply an endorsement, andany errors are the authors’ own. INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION, 2018WWW.THEICCT.ORG
AUTOMATION IN THE LONG HAUL: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF AUTONOMOUS HEAVY-DUTY TRUCKING IN THE U.S.(2014) and adopted by the U.S. federalgovernment, and offers examples.hardware such as a steering wheel orbrake and accelerator pedals.From Level 0 to Level 5, the automated vehicle system progressivelyhandles additional tasks and increasingly monitors the driving environment. Level 0 trucks may still includeadvanced technologies such as activesafety systems (e.g., automatic emergency braking) or warning features(e.g., lane departure warning), butb e c a u s e t h e s e fe at u re s p rov i d emomentary intervention and are notsustained, they are considered Level0 as defined by the J3016 standardp u b l i s h e d by SA E I n te r n a t i o n a l(2016). As shown in Table 1, heavyduty trucks capable of Level 0 andLevel 1 automation are commerciallyavailable today, and trucks with Level2 capabilities are rapidly nearingcommercialization. A small number oftrucking demonstrations consideredLevel 3 have occurred to date. Forautonomous vehicle systems Levels3 , the technology is responsible formonitoring the driving environmentand is in control of vehicle functionsand decision making. Autonomousvehicles Level 4 do not requirehuman intervention, which meansthese vehicles theoretically couldbe manufactured without typicalThe remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, wesummarize the current state of autonomous trucking technology, highlighting the relevant technologies,costs, and demonstrations, emphasizing those that promise to improvefuel economy. Section 3 introducesseveral societal acceptance considerations related to autonomoustrucking and discusses the potentialbenefits and drawbacks of technology adoption. Section 4 outlinesthe current policy landscape in theUnited States. Section 5 summarizes the findings from 15 interviewswith industry experts that exploretechnical, economic, and societalbarriers to higher levels of automation in trucking, as well as the potential ways that policy can effectivelyaddress these issues. In Section 6,we conclude by outlining several keyreflections from our research andhighlight areas for future work.2. State of autonomoustrucking technologyThis section provides an overview ofthe current technology landscape forautonomous heavy-duty trucking andwhat it might mean for fuel economy.We review and summarize the relevantresearch literature on automated andconnected heavy-duty vehicle technologies, costs, deployment, and theimplications of truck platooning andother technologies on fuel economy.Our review includes literature fromindependent researchers, academia,national laboratories, federal agencies,nongovernmental organizations, andindustry stakeholders.Automated and connected heavyduty vehicle technologies, costs, anddeployment. Table 2 outlines severalexamples of automated and connectedvehicle technologies and technologyapplications identified in the heavyduty trucking space. Broadly speaking,a handful of sensor, communication,and processing software technologies are enabling varying degrees oftrucking autonomy by commandingactuators such as steering and braking.As shown, vehicle sensor technologiesinclude cameras, radar, LiDAR (whichstands for light detection and ranging),and GPS units. Connected vehicle technologies allow for communicationsacross vehicles (vehicle-to-vehicle) andinfrastructure (vehicle-to-infrastructure), commonly referred to as V2Vor V2I. The current leading vehiclecommunications technology is dedicated short-range communicationsTable 1. Description of levels of mples0No automationHuman performs all driving tasks, even if enhanced byactive safety systems.Navistar LT, Peterbilt 5791Driver assistanceVehicle can perform sustained control of either steeringor acceleration/deceleration.Peloton Platooning System, CommerciallyVolvo VNLavailable2Partial automationVehicle can perform sustained control of both steeringand acceleration/deceleration.Embark, Starsky RoboticsPre-commercial3Conditional automationAll tasks can be controlled by the system in somesituations. Human intervention may be required.Freightliner Inspiration,Uber ATG / OttoPrototype retrofit4High automationAll tasks can be handled by the system withouthuman intervention, but in limited environments (e.g.,dedicated lanes or zones).Not currently availableResearch anddevelopment5Full automationAutomated system can handle all roadway conditionsand environments.Not currently availableResearch anddevelopmentINTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION CommerciallyavailableWORKING PAPER 2018-06
AUTOMATION IN THE LONG HAUL: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF AUTONOMOUS HEAVY-DUTY TRUCKING IN THE U.S.(DSRC), but research in 5G mobilenetwork and other technologies couldalso facilitate vehicle connectivity inthe future (National Academies ofScience, Engineering, and Medicine,2017). Software is needed to processinformation gathered from sensors andcommunications and control vehiclefunctions. Autonomous and connectedvehicle technologies frequently are discussed together because of the synergies between them, yet the technologies may be deployed and adoptedseparately. Connectivity allows autonomous vehicles to process the additionalsensing information from other nearbyvehicles, allowing them to effectively“see” the road ahead beyond the immediate surroundings that are captured bythe vehicles’ own sensing technologies.Many of these technologies are available today and are being purchased byseveral fleets (North American Councilfor Freight Efficiency [NACFE], 2016).The farthest right column of the tableshows examples of companies that areinvolved in manufacturing one or moreautonomous and connected vehicletechnologies. Many of these companiesare active in both the passenger car andcommercial vehicle sectors, as the coresensing, communications, and softwaretechnologies are generally applicable to both the light-duty and heavytrucking sectors (National Academiesof Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine,2017). The list of industry players is farfrom exhaustive; Comet Labs mappedout a chart of more than 250 companiesthat are pursuing autonomous vehicles(Stewart, 2017). Furthermore, we notethat many companies do not discloseinformation about which technologiesthey manufacture in-house and whichthey purchase from parts suppliers.Table 2. Example automated and connected vehicle technologies in on-road heavy-duty nologymakersUsed to identify other objects using visible light. Cameras havelimitations compared to other sensor technologies and functionpoorly in darkness, extremely bright light, and certain weatherconditions.YesContinental,Mobileye, DelphiRadarUsed to identify the velocity, direction, and distance of other objectsby emitting high-frequency radio waves.YesBosch,Continental,Autoliv, DelphiLiDARConsidered the most reliable and robust sensing technology. LiDARmeasures the range and speed of objects using reflected light.Range and speed are measured based on the time that laser lighttakes to reflect. LiDAR systems can process and record images.(National Highway Traffic and Safety Administration [NHTSA], 2013).YesVelodyne LiDAR,LeddarTech,Quanenergy,Delphi, Strobe,WaymoUsed to identify vehicle position and velocity by communicatingwith satellite signals.YesLinxTechnologiesDedicated short range communications (DSRC) is two-waycommunications in 5.9 GHz band that allows for high datatransmission over a moderate range. DSRC allows for V2V and V2Icommunications which can send messages and provide alerts todrivers in real time. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT,2017a) considers this technology the basis for intelligent vehiclesafety application integration.YesNXP, Qualcomm5GThe 5th generation wireless systems currently under developmentwill allow for higher capacity and better coverage with less latency.5G is expected to support device-to-device communicationswith increased reliability. 5G is believed to be a promisingcommunications technology with applications for connected andautonomous vehicles within the next decade (National Academies ofSciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2017).NoNot eMillions of lines of software code enable autonomous and connectedtrucking. Computing software systems are used to process imagescaptured from sensor technologies, interpret communicationsmessages from other vehicles or infrastructure, and controlvehicle functions in real time. Software refinement and validationis considered a much larger challenge than deploying sensor andcommunication hardware (Tesla, 2016).Yes, SoftwareCommerciallyavailable?WORKING PAPER 2018-06 Nvidia, Intel,Autoliv, Cisco,Uber ATG, manyothersINTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION3
AUTOMATION IN THE LONG HAUL: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF AUTONOMOUS HEAVY-DUTY TRUCKING IN THE U.S.Sensors, communication, and processing software enable a variety of vehicleapplications including but not limitedto driver alerts and collision avoidance systems, automatic braking, lanekeeping assistance, adaptive cruisecontrol, platooning, and eco-drivingoptimization. Many of these technologyapplications are described in greaterdetail in Table 3. A few examples ofcompanies that offer, or seek to offer,automated and connected vehicletechnology applications in the truckingsector are shown in the column farthestto the right.The market demand for autonomousvehicle technologies of low and highlevels of automation is quite strong,and numerous industry groups areaggressively developing products. Inthe future, additional advancementsin vehicle sensor quality, bandwidthavailability for vehicle communications, and processing software andalgorithms are likely to enable morerobust technology applications andhigher levels of automation.Return on investment (ROI) is oftena key factor influencing the adoptionof new technologies on freight applications. Upfront technology costsand per-mile operating costs are corecomponents that influence the valueproposition for fleet adoption. Table 4shows some estimates of the upfrontcosts for several examples of autonomous heavy-duty vehicle technologiesand systems.Several of the technologies shown inTable 4 cost only a few hundred dollars.These include driver assistance anddriver alert systems, which typically arepurchased for safety and collision mitigation. While there are some estimates,less information is known about thetechnology costs for trucking automation for Levels 3 and above, especiallythe projected cost reductions thatwould stem from increased production4volumes and broader commercialization. This information is needed tobetter assess the value proposition forfleets to adopt various autonomoustrucking technologies. There are severalpotential direct and indirect economicbenefits that autonomous truckingmay offer, and a deeper understandingof the costs will better inform the paceand scale of technology adoption.In addition to what the research literature reveals about autonomoustrucking technology costs, rough estimates can be compiled using information from third-party parts suppliers. For example, a review of theparts components for Meritor Wabco’sOnGuardActive system, a radar-basedactive collision mitigation and adaptivecruise control system, on the independent truck parts marketplace finditparts.com website suggests systemcosts of around 2,500 to 3,500. Thisis roughly in line with the costs for othersimilar technology applications documented in Table 4. There also has beensome speculation in the media abouttechnology costs. As reported for theAmerican Transportation ResearchInstitute by Short and Murray (2016),additional technology costs for Uber’sretrofitted long-haul truck—believed tobe Level 3, as identified earlier in thisreport—as well as Daimler’s FreightlinerInspiration, which also is believed tobe Level 3, have been estimated at 30,000 per truck (McNabb, 2015;Stewart, 2016). These cost estimatesfor a Level 3 truck are approximatelytwice the estimates reported in RolandBerger (2016). One reason for the largediscrepancy may be the difference inassessing the cost of a single retrofitprototype versus assuming some levelof market adoption and achievingeconomies of scale.Several of the technologies andsystems shown in Table 4 are availabletoday, and some have had notableINTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION commercial adoption. For example,Meritor Wabco’s OnGuardActive collision mitigation system is reportedto be in 120,000 heavy-duty trucks(Meritor Wabco, 2017). Not exclusive to heavy-duty trucks, Mobileye’sAdvanced Driver Assistance Systemis used in nearly 15 million vehiclesworldwide (Mobileye, 2017b). A studyby Rodríguez, Muncrief, Delgado, andBaldino (2017) estimated the marketpenetration of several heavy-dutyvehicle technologies in the UnitedStates and the EU, including automated manual transmissions (AMTs),predictive cruise control (PCC), andadaptive cruise control (ACC). The2015 U.S. and EU market penetrationof these technologies in new tractortrailers was 28% (U.S.) and 70% (EU)for AMTs, 3% (U.S.) and 20% (EU) forPCC, and 10% (U.S.) and 50% (EU) forACC. More research is needed to morefully identify the suite of autonomousvehicle-related technologies that havebeen adopted to date and the fleetsthat are adopting them.Technological barriers remain for commercial deployment of heavy-dutytruck platooning and higher levelsof automation (Levels 3 ). Despitecurrent barriers, researchers andindustry stakeholders have made predictions about the commercial availability and uptake of autonomoustrucks. A few of these predictions aredocumented here. NACFE (2016) reports that “it isextremely likely that in the nearfuture, Class 8 tractors will be soldas platooning capable ‘right out ofthe box’” (unspecified, assumedLevel 2). Commercial deployment of platooning applications (unspecified,assumed Level 2) could occuraround 2020 on select U.S. roads(National Academies of Sciences,Engineering, and Medicine, 2017).WORKING PAPER 2018-06
AUTOMATION IN THE LONG HAUL: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF AUTONOMOUS HEAVY-DUTY TRUCKING IN THE U.S.Table 3. Examples of automated and connected vehicle technology applications in on-road heavy-duty erciallyavailable?DescriptionExamplecompaniesLane departurewarningSensors suchas cameras,processingsoftwareThese systems send an audible or haptic warning to drivers when there isrisk of the vehicle unintentionally drifting outside of the lane. This technologyis considered Level 0 because it does nothing more than alert a driver.(National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2017).YesMobileye,MeritorWabcoBlind spotdetectionSensors suchas camerasand radar,processingsoftwareBlind spot detection devices can detect if other vehicles are located in thedriver’s blind spots and notify the driver. The alerts can be audible, haptic,or visual. Like lane departure warnings, blind spot detection alerts areconsidered Level 0.YesMobileye,MeritorWabco, VolvoAutomaticbrakingSensors suchas camerasand radar,processingsoftwareAutomatic braking systems can detect the speed and distance of vehiclesahead of them and automatically apply the brakes if needed. This technologyis considered Level 0 because the feature provides momentary interventionand is not sustained.YesScania, DAF,Daimler,MeritorWabco, roniccontrol unit,hydraulics,softwareAutomated manual transmissions control the operation of the clutch andgear selection automatically, based on information gathered from vehiclesensors. AMTs are an enabling technology and are generally required on allLevel 1 autonomous trucks.YesEaton, ,monitoringand processingsoftware,telematicsA system that monitors human driving and provides real-time advice andfeedback for drivers to achieve greater fuel performance, for example bymoderating highway speed and by smoothing acceleration and braking.YesTomTom,Ruptela,SmartDriveAutomatedlane keepingSensors suchas camerasor radar,processingsoftwareThese systems monitor the vehicle placement within road lane markings. Ifthe vehicle is departing the lane, the system corrects the lateral directionautomatically. The technology is considered Level 1.YesScania,MeritorWabcoAdaptive cruisecontrol (ACC)Sensors suchas radar,processingsoftwareAdaptive cruise control adjusts vehicle speed, controlling throttle andbraking, based on the speed of the vehicle in front of it in order to maintain aset distance. ACC technology is considered Level 1.YesMeritorWabco, DAF,Volvo, BendixPredictivecruise control(PCC)GPS,topographicalmapping data,processingsoftwarePredictive cruise control combines cruise control with GPS and topographicaldata inputs, altering vehicle speed to optimize performance over varioustypes of terrain. PCC technology provides maximum benefits in conditionswith rolling hills. The technology is considered Level 1. PCC and ACC can beactive simultaneously or the functions could be offered separately.YesKenworth,DAFPlatooningSensors suchas radar,processingsoftware,could alsoinclude vehiclecommunicationsusing DSRCPlatooning is when groups of vehicles travel close together to minimizeaerodynamic drag. Truck platooning typically includes sets of two or threetrucks paired together using sensor and communication technologies.At basic levels, ACC alone (Level 1) could enable truck platooning. Moreadvanced platooning technology controls for both longitudinal (ACC) andlateral (automated lane keeping) movements and is considered Level 2.HighlyautomatedtruckingWill likelyincludecameras, radar,LiDAR, DSRC,processingsoftware.Highly automated trucks will be capable of operating autonomously withouthuman intervention in limited environments such as dedicated areas orhighway lanes. Highly automated trucks (Level 4 ) are not commerciallyavailable for on-road applications today, but there are a few examples oftheir use in mining and farming operations.NoDaimler, UberATGTelematicsGPS, DSRC, orother ftwareTelematics systems combine telecommunications and informatics, whichis the collection, classification, storage, retrieval, and dissemination ofinformation. Telematics equip fleet managers with valuable real-time datasuch as vehicle location, speed, service needs, weather, road conditions, anddriver performance. Telematics are expected to complement connectedand autonomous vehicles, for example by enabling the transmission andprocessing of communications data from nearby vehicles, or by facilitatingidentifying opportunities to link vehicles to form a platoon.YesZonar,Geotab,OpenmaticsWORKING PAPER 2018-06 Yes (Level 1),Peloton,Level 2 systemsVolvo, Uberare preATG, DaimlercommercialINTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION5
AUTOMATION IN THE LONG HAUL: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF AUTONOMOUS HEAVY-DUTY TRUCKING IN THE U.S.Table 4. Estimated costs for examples of autonomous and connected truck technologies and technology applicationsStudy or referenceWaymo (2017)Technology orapplicationLiDARTechnology descriptionConsidered the most robustsensing technology for processingimages.CostTime frame 75,000“A fewyears ago”(unspecified) 7,5002017NotesCost estimates are per unit. Companies typically installone to four LiDAR units per vehicle. Waymo CEO JohnKrafcik revealed the company has reduced the cost of 75,000 “top-of-the-range” LiDAR units by 90%.Nordrum, A. (2016)DSRC modulesV2V communications hardware. 100 to 200Around 2016Harding et al. (2014)V2VcommunicationsV2V communications equipmentand functions. 341 to 3502020U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency[EPA] and NHTSA(2016a)AutomatedmanualtransmissionA transmission that facilitates truckshifting by utilizing a computer andeliminating the manual shifter andclutch. 5,1002013 3,7502018National Academies ofSciences, Engineering,and Medicine (2017)Blind spotdetection systemA system of sensors that identifiesvehicles in the driver’s blind spotsand provides a warning. 250 to 850AvailabletodayCost estimates are for aftermarket system cost.National Academies ofSciences, Engineering,and Medicine (2017),Mobileye (2017a)MobileyeAdvanced DriverAssistanceSystemDriver assistance through collisionavoidance intelligent vision sensortechnologies. 850with 150installationAvailabletodayA driver alert safety package that offers a variety of alertsand driver assistance features including forward collisionwarning, lane departure warning, headway monitoringand warning, pedestrian and cyclist warning, intelligenthigh beam control, turn signal reminder, and low visibilityindicator.Meritor Wabco(2017, n.d.)Meritor WabcoOnGuardActiveRadar-based sensor systemidentifies potential collisions andsends warning notifications todrivers.NotdisclosedAvailabletodayThe collision mitigation system also includes adaptivecruise control and active braking applications. More than120,000 OnGuard collision mitigation systems have beensold in North America and are being used by more than200 fleets.Adaptive cruisecontrolVehicle technology to dynamicallycontrol longitudinal movementand maintain consistent followingdistance. 3,000Around 2006DOT (2014) 2,000Around 2014International Council onClean Transportation(ICCT, 2017)Predictive cruisecontrolA technology that alters vehiclespeed to optimize performanceover various types of terrain basedon GPS and topographical data. 7602030Predictive cruisecontrolA technology that alters vehiclespeed to optimize performanceover various types of terrain basedon GPS and topographical data. 9532018EPA and NHTSA (2016) 7662027Daimler AG (2015)Predictive cruisecontrolA technology that alters vehiclespeed to optimize performanceover various types of terrain basedon GPS and topographical data.American TruckingAssociationsTechnology andMaintenance Council(2015)Adaptive cruisecontrol and lanekeeping assistVehicle technologies forlongitudinal and lateral controls.Janssen, Zwijnenberg,Blankes, & Kruijff (2015)PlatooningNACFE (2016)PlatooningRoland Berger (2016)Cost estimates not explicit to heavy-duty vehicles.Assumed to include sensing technologies (cameras,radar) and processing software.The study reports the estimated 2030 vehicle technologycosts and reports the values in 2015 dollars.EPA and NHTSA estimate the cost of predictive cruisecontrol for heavy-duty tractors and reports the values in2013 dollars.Cost estimate indicates the advertised cost (excludingVAT) in Germany to purchase and install the retrofittechnology. Based on typical mileage of 81,000 miles/year, the technology payback period from fuel savings(up to 5%) is advertised as less than 1 year. 3,000Availabletoday(in light-dutyvehicles)Study not specific to heavy-duty vehicles. Together,adaptive cruise control and lane keeping assist areconsidered Level 2 by enabling the system to control bothlongitudinally and laterally.Technology that enables vehiclesto travel close together to minimizeaerodynamic drag.About 11,900per truck( 10,000)2015Includes V2V communication technology and “necessaryadditional safety measures” which are unspecified butassumed to include sensor systems such as LiDAR, radar,and/or cameras.Technology that enables vehiclesto travel close together to minimizeaerodynamic drag. 1,500 – 2,000 pertruck2016Estimated cost of required technologies to enable twotruck platooning, based on industry interviews fromunnamed fleet manager and technology developer. 1,800 6,900Incremental technology costs(above Level 0) for Level 1 to Level5 truck automation.Level 56EPA and NHTSA estimate the cost of automated manualtransmissions for medium- and heavy-duty vehicles andreport the values in 2013 dollars.2015Level 2Level 4NHTSA estimates the cost of V2V equipment andcommunications functions for light-duty vehicles. Thetechnologies include DSRC transmitter/receiver, DSRCantenna, electronic control unit, GPS, GPS antenna, wiring,and displays. 1,300 withinstallation( 1,500)Level 1Level 3Cost estimates are for DSRC module made by NXP.INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 13,100 19,000 23,400UnspecifiedStudy estimated the incremental costs of addingtechnology to enable Level 1 through Level 5 automation.Total incremental technology cost to reach Level 5 isestimated at 23,000. Incremental technologies includehardware (sensors, communications) and additionalprocessing software.WORKING PAPER 2018-06
AUTOMATION IN THE LONG HAUL: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF AUTONOMOUS HEAVY-DUTY TRUCKING IN THE U.S. Level 3 automation capabilitiesare most likely to come within adecade for heavy trucks (AmericanTrucking Associations Technologyand Maintenance Council, 2015). The International Transport Forum(ITF, 2015) predicts that Level 4trucking on highways could beavailable before 2030. A study requested by the EuropeanParliament finds that platooningtechnology will allow truck driversto legally disengage from thedriving task within 10 to 20 years.Fully driverless trucking (Level 5)could emerge after 2035 (Frisoniet al., 2016). Early adoption of highly automated trucks (Levels 4 ) mayoccur in the form of a trailing truckin a platoon, following closelybehind a driver-assisted (Level 1)truck (NACFE, 2016).Heavy-duty truck platooning demonstrations and implications for fueleconomy. A major focus of the researchliterature and industry R&D efforts todate has been on truck platooning,driven partially by the potential fuelsavings and attractive return on investment that can result. Platooning technology combines safety and collisionmitigation technologies with vehiclecommunications and automated vehiclecontrols to tether trucks together information (NACFE, 2016). As noted inTable 3, basic levels of platooning canbe realized by adaptive cruise controlalone, while more advanced platooningcontrols both longitudinal (ACC) andlateral (automated lane keeping) movements and is considered Level 2.In the most basic form, platooningcould be conducted manually, which isto say without automation, simply bydriving with short following distances;however, this method poses significantcrash risk and safety considerations.Emergin
Mar 28, 2018 · functions. Autonomous and connected vehicle technologies frequently are dis-cussed together because of the syner-gies between them, yet the technolo-gies may be deployed and adopted separately. Connectivity allows autono-mous vehicles to process the additional sensing information from other nearb
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