Handbook Of Adhesives And Sealants - Cvut.cz
Source: Handbook of Adhesives and SealantsChapter1An Introduction toAdhesive and Sealants1.1IntroductionThis chapter provides an understanding of adhesives and sealants asa means for assembling and adding value to finished products. Theimportance and prominence that adhesives and sealants have as commercial products are highlighted. The multiple functions played byadhesives and sealants are identified as are the critical proceduresrequired to achieve successful results. The advantages and disadvantages of using these materials are explained and compared to othermethods of joining.Basic definitions of common terms used in the adhesive and sealantindustries are provided in this chapter, and a glossary of terms appears in Appendix A. The processes employed by the manufacturersof adhesives and sealants and by their end-users are described.Sources of information for further understanding and study are offered at the conclusion of this chapter and in Appendix B.Through this chapter, the reader will gain an appreciation of thecomplex processes related to adhesives and sealants and the multiplesciences that form their foundation. This chapter reveals why a multidisciplined approach is necessary for the successful application of adhesives and sealants. Most of the topics presented are again visitedin detail in later chapters.Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
An Introduction to Adhesive and Sealants2Chapter One1.2 Fundamentals of Adhesives andSealants1.2.1 Importance of adhesives andsealantsAdhesives and sealants surround us in nature and in our daily lives.Substantial businesses exist to develop, manufacture, and marketthese materials, and they are used within virtually every business andindustry. Applications abound from office ‘‘post-it notes䉸’’ to automotive safety glass to footwear to aerospace structures to ‘‘no-lick’’ postage stamps. Many products that we take for granted could never existif it were not for adhesive bonding or sealing.If someone could determine the total value added to our economyby the relatively small amount of adhesives and sealants that areused, the result would be staggering. Yet, with adhesives and sealantsall around us, with applications extending back to at least biblicaltimes, and with many examples of outstanding adhesion in nature(e.g., barnacles and ice on roads), why are there so many failures whenwe try to ‘‘engineer’’ the use of adhesives or sealants in practice? Whydoes it seem as if we must resort to trial and error, if not a bit of luckor magic? Examples of catastrophic disasters such as the 1986 Challenger space shuttle sealant problem and the 1988 Aloha Airlines 737fuselage peeling apart in flight unfortunately also invade the historyof adhesives and sealants. Perhaps no other class of materials or technology is so essential yet so ripe for potential misadventure.The adhesives and sealants industry is bolstered by thousands ofyears of trial and error. This long history can be coupled with significant additions to the fundamental supporting sciences and with thedevelopment of advanced materials and processes. Consequently, society has generally progressed to a point where we actually trust notonly our fortunes but also our lives to these materials. The study ofadhesives and sealants and the sciences surrounding their applicationhas never been more important.1.2.2DefinitionsAs any science that has progressed over the centuries, the science thatsupports adhesives and sealants has developed a jargon and languageof its own. Appendix A defines terms that are commonly used in theseindustries. Important, basic terms necessary to develop a fundamentalunderstanding of how and why adhesives and sealants provide valueare given in this section.Adhesives and sealants are often made of similar materials, andthey are sometimes used in similar applications. These materials haveDownloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
An Introduction to Adhesive and SealantsAn Introduction to Adhesives and Sealants3comparable processing requirements and failure mechanisms, and thefundamentals of how they work are similar. Therefore, adhesives andsealants are often considered together, as they are in this Handbook.However, different specifications and test methods apply to adhesivesand sealants, and most often they are designed to perform differentfunctions. Their definitions hint at these differing functions.Adhesive—a substance capable of holding at least two surfaces together in a strong and permanent manner.Sealant—a substance capable of attaching to at least two surfaces,thereby, filling the space between them to provide a barrier or protective coating.Adhesives and sealants are often considered together because theyboth adhere and seal; both must be resistant to their operating environments; and their properties are highly dependent on how they areapplied and processed. Adhesives and sealants also share several common characteristics.䡲 They must behave as a liquid, at some time in the course of bondformation, in order to flow over and wet (make intimate contactwith) the adherends.䡲 They form surface attachment through adhesion (the developmentof intermolecular forces).䡲 They must harden to carry sometimes continuous, sometimes vari-able load throughout their lives.䡲 They transfer and distribute load among the components in an as-sembly.䡲 They must fill gaps, cavities, and spaces.䡲 They must work with other components of the assembly to providea durable product.Adhesives are chosen for their holding and bonding power. They aregenerally materials having high shear and tensile strength. Structuraladhesive is a term generally used to define an adhesive whose strengthis critical to the success of the assembly. This term is usually reservedto describe adhesives with high shear strength (in excess of 1,000pounds per square inch or psi) and good environmental resistance.Examples of structural adhesives are epoxy, thermosetting acrylic, andurethane systems. Structural adhesives are usually expected to lastthe life of the product to which they are applied.Non-structural adhesives are adhesives with much lower strengthand permanence. They are generally used for temporary fastening orDownloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
An Introduction to Adhesive and Sealants4Chapter Oneto bond weak substrates. Examples of non-structural adhesives arepressure sensitive films, wood glue, elastomers, and sealants.Sealants are generally chosen for their ability to fill gaps, resistrelative movement of the substrates, and exclude or contain anothermaterial. They are generally lower in strength than adhesives, buthave better flexibility. Common sealants include urethanes, silicones,and acrylic systems.Both adhesives and sealants function primarily by the property ofadhesion. Adhesion is the attraction of two different substances resulting from intermolecular forces between the substances. This is distinctly different from cohesion, which involves only the intermolecularattractive forces within a single substance. The intermolecular forcesacting in both adhesion and cohesion are primarily van der Waalsforces which will be explained in the next chapter. To better understand the difference between adhesion and cohesion, consider thefailed joints illustrated in Fig. 1.1. Joints fail either adhesively or cohesively or by some combination of the two.Adhesive failure is an interfacial bond failure between the adhesiveand the adherend. Cohesive failure could exist within either the adhesive material or the adherend. Cohesive failure of the adhesive occurs when stress fracture within the adhesive material allows a layerof adhesive to remain on both substrates (i.e., the attachment of theadhesive to the substrate is stronger than the internal strength of theadhesive itself, and the adhesive fails within its bulk). When the adherend fails before the adhesive and the joint area remains intact, itis known as a cohesive failure of the adherend.Figure 1.1 Examples of cohesive and adhesive failure.Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
An Introduction to Adhesive and SealantsAn Introduction to Adhesives and Sealants5Other important definitions may be illustrated by considering theschematic of the joint in Fig. 1.2 where two substrates are bondedtogether with an adhesive or sealant. The substrate is the material tobe bonded. After bonding, the substrate is often referred to as an adherend (although sometimes these two terms are used synonymously).The area between the adhesive and adherend is referred to as theinterphase region. This interphase region is a thin region near thepoint of adhesive—adherend contact. The interphase region has different chemical and physical characteristics than either the bulk adhesive or the adherend. The nature of the interphase region is a critical factor in determining the properties and quality of an adhesivebond.Different from the interphase is the interface, which is containedwithin the interphase. The interface is the plane of contact betweenthe surface of one material and the surface of the other. The interfaceis often useful in describing surface energetics. The interface is alsoat times referred to as a boundary layer. Between the adhesive andadherend there can be several interfaces composed of layers of different materials. The boundary layers will be discussed in detail in thefollowing chapters.Sometimes a primer is used with adhesives or sealants. A primer isapplied to a surface prior to the application of an adhesive or sealant,usually for improving the performance of the bond or protecting thesurface until the adhesive or sealant can be applied. The joint is theInterphase RegionsAdherendsAdhesive or SealantPrimerFigure 1.2 Components of a typical adhesive or sealant joint.Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
An Introduction to Adhesive and Sealants6Chapter Onepart of the assembly made up of adherends; adhesive or sealant; primers, if present; and all associated interphase regions as shown in Fig.1.2.1.2.3 Important factors for successfullyusing adhesives and sealantsFrom the complexity of the joint as described above, it should be evident that what is necessary to successfully understand and use adhesives or sealants is far broader than simply a knowledge of certainmaterials. The quality of the resulting application will depend onmany factors, some of which are very entangled and complicated.One of the principal factors in the success of either an adhesive orsealant is adhesion. Table 1.1 lists some of the external and internalfactors that influence adhesion. An understanding of how these factorsaffect adhesion will determine the success of the bonding or sealingoperation. Knowledge of production processes, economics, and environment and safety factors is also important.Anyone intending to use adhesives or sealants faces the formidabletasks of selecting the correct materials and determining proper processes. The adhesive or sealant must flow onto the substrate surfaceand then change from a flowable liquid to a structural solid withoutcreating harmful internal stresses in the joint. The substrate surfacemust have previously been cleaned and, possibly, prepared speciallyfor maximum adhesion. The joint geometry must be correctly designedwith regard to the materials selected and to the expected loads toavoid undesirable local stresses that could lead to early and prematurefailure. Also, the physical and chemical characteristics of the joint(adhesive / sealant, adherends, and interphase regions) must be understood and forecast in relation to the expected operating environment.The end-user should not only be concerned with the performance ofthe joint immediately after bonding or sealing. The performance of thejoint must also be considered throughout its practical service life. Almost all adhesive or sealant systems will undergo some change duringtheir life. These changes could have a profound effect on the strengthand permanence of the joint.Unfortunately, substrates and adhesive/sealant materials tend tochange due to external influences from the environment. Thesechanges could occur: (a) during formation of the joint; and (b) duringaging in service. Not only is the adhesive and adherend subject tochange, but the interphase region could be subject to transformationas well. These simultaneously occurring, dynamic processes are onereason why it is so difficult to predict the life of a bonded joint. It mayDownloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
An Introduction to Adhesive and SealantsAn Introduction to Adhesives and SealantsTABLE 1.17Factors Influencing Selection of an Adhesive or Sealant1StressTension. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Forces acting perpendicular to the plane of the adhesive.Not commonly encountered in bonding thin plastic or metalsheets, leather, cork compositions, etc.Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Forces acting in the plane of the adhesive. Pure shear isseldom encountered in adhesive assemblies; substantialtension components are usually foundImpact . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Minimum force required to cause the adhesive to fail in asingle blow. May be determined in tension or shear.Measures brittlenessPeel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Stripping of a flexible member fastened with adhesive toanother flexible or rigid member. Stress is applied at a line;test loads are expressed in pounds per inch width.Commonly used angles of peel in tests are 90 for relativelystiff and 180 for flexible membersCleavage. . . . . . . . . . . . .Forces applied at one end of a rigid bonded assembly whichtend to split the bonded members apart. Can be consideredas ‘‘peel’’ of two rigid membersFatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dynamic—alternate loading in shear or tensioncompression. Static—maximum load sustained for longperiods of time in tension or shear; tests are also used todetermine creepChemical FactorsExternal . . . . . . . . . . . . .Internal . . . . . . . . . . . . .ExposureWeathering . . . . . . . . . .Effect of chemical agents such as water, salt water,gasoline, by hydraulic fluid, acids, alkalies, etc.Effect of adherend on adhesive (i.e., exuded plasticizers incertain plastics and rubber); effect of adhesive on theadherend (crazing, staining, etc.)Combined effect of rainfall, sunlight, temperature changes,type of atmosphereLight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Important only with translucent adherends. Effect ofartificial or natural light, or ultravioletOxidation . . . . . . . . . . . .Usually tested by exposure to ozone with the joint eitherunstressed or stressed, in which case deterioration is fasterMoisture. . . . . . . . . . . . .Either adhesive or adherend may be affected by highhumidity or wet conditions. Cyclic testing with alternatemoist and dry conditions can be valuable. May causedimensional changesSalt spray . . . . . . . . . . .Important only in coastal or marine atmospheres. Possiblecorrosion of adherend should also be consideredTemperatureHigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Normal atmospheric variations may be encountered, orexceptional conditions. Bond strength may be affected byreactions in adhesive or adherend; decomposition orchanges in physical properties of adhesive are importantDownloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
An Introduction to Adhesive and Sealants8Chapter OneTABLE 1.1Factors Influencing Selection of an Adhesive or Sealant (Continued )Low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Biological FactorsBacteria or mold . . . . .Rodents or vermin. . . .Working PropertiesApplication . . . . . . . . . .May cause crystallization or embrittlement, detected bystrength test. Cyclic testing with low or high temperaturesmay detect lack of durabilityUsually warm, humid tropical conditions. Can affect bondstrength, and cause emission of odor or discolorationAdhesives of animal or vegetable origin may be attacked byrats, cockroaches, etc.Brushing, spray, trowel, or knife-spreader applicationcharacteristics are usually determined by trial and error.Consistency or viscosity may be adequate indications.Mechanical stability of emulsions and dispersions, andfoaming tendency, can be important for machineapplicationBonding range . . . . . . .Minimum drying or solvent-reactivation time beforesuitable bond can be obtained. Maximum allowable timebefore assembly. Permissible temperature range with heatactivated adhesivesBlocking . . . . . . . . . . . . .Tendency of surfaces coated for storage before assembly toadhere under slight pressure, or changes in humidity ortemperaturesCuring rate . . . . . . . . . .Minimum curing time, and effect of overcuring. May bedetermined as a shear or tensile-strength vs. curing-timecurve at a specific curing temperatureStorage stability. . . . . .Physical and chemical changes in original unapplied stateas a result of storage for extended time periods atrepresentative storage temperaturesCoverage . . . . . . . . . . . .Area of bond that can be formed with unit weight orvolume of adhesive; expressed as pounds per 1,000 ft ofbond line, or square feet per gallon. Depends on method ofapplication; dimensions of work or of adhesive-coated areain relation to part size may affect coveragebe very difficult to know exactly the composition of the joint at anypoint in time. The possibility of these transformations resulting in anunacceptable material within the joint or in altering the mode of failure is great. In some applications, they could result in a catastrophic,premature joint failure.1.2.4 Nature of the technologies related toadhesives and sealantsA multi-disciplined set of rules and a field-tested methodology are necessary to successfully negotiate the minefield of obstacles listed above.This requires consideration of fundamental concepts from a numberDownloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
An Introduction to Adhesive and SealantsAn Introduction to Adhesives and Sealants9of scientific disciplines. Figure 1.3 illustrates the various academic disciplines that are relevant. The primary sciences of physics, mechanics,and chemistry will overlap in certain areas to form the disciplines ofsurface science, polymeric materials, and joint design that are important to the science of adhesion. There are then further segments ofthese sciences such as polymer rheology and fracture mechanics,which are also highly relevant. Each of these specialized disciplineshas contributed significantly to the science of adhesion and to its resulting stature in industrial products. The resulting overlap of all ofthese disciplines could be referred to as the ‘‘science’’ needed to succ
to describe adhesives with high shear strength (in excess of 1,000 pounds per square inch or psi) and good environmental resistance. Examples of structural adhesives are epoxy, thermosetting acrylic,and urethane systems. Structural adhesives are usually expected to last the life of the product to which they are applied.
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Formulating Silicone Adhesives Gels and Sealants John H. MacMillan Ph.D. Gels and Sealants John H. John H. MacMillan Ph.D.D. 2 Silicone Technology is a wide and mature science spanning the gamut of materials from commodity lubricants to high performance defense coatings. This paper
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mm) wide crown outside measure. 2.2.7 Adhesives. 2.2.7.1 Adhesives for attaching gypsum panel products to wood framing members shall comply with Standard Specifi-cation for Adhesives for Fastening Gypsum Board to Wood Framing, ASTM C 557. 2.2.7.2 Adhesives for attaching gypsum panel products to steel framing members shall be as specified by the .
BREAKOUT TANK INSPECTION FORM Page 1 of 12 Form-10 Breakout Tank Inspection Form (Rev. 03/17/11 through Amdt. 195-95). . API 653 in proper conformance with the stresses, joint efficiencie (a) of withstanding the internal pressure produced by the hazardous liquid to be stored therein and any anticipated external loads. The repair/alteration history includes all data accumulated on a tank from .
