Vegetation-Soil-Thaw-Depth . - Geobotany.uaf.edu
PERMAFROST AND PERIGLACIAL PROCESSESPermafrost Periglac. Process. 14: 103–123 (2003)Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/ppp.452Vegetation-Soil-Thaw-Depth Relationships along a Low-ArcticBioclimate Gradient, Alaska: Synthesis of Information from theATLAS StudiesD. A. Walker,1 * G. J. Jia,2 H. E. Epstein,2 M. K. Raynolds,1 F. S. Chapin III,1 C. Copass,1 L. D. Hinzman,3J. A. Knudson,1 H. A. Maier,1 G. J. Michaelson,4 F. Nelson,5 C. L. Ping,4 V. E. Romanovsky6and N. Shiklomanov5123456Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska-Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, USADepartment of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USAWater and Environmental Research Center, University of Alaska-Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, USAPalmer Research Center, University of Alaska-Fairbanks, Palmer, Alaska, USADepartment of Geography, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USAGeophysical Institute, University of Alaska-Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, USAABSTRACTDifferences in the summer insulative value of the zonal vegetation mat affect the depth of thawalong the Arctic bioclimate gradient. Toward the south, taller, denser plant canopies and thickerorganic horizons counter the effects of warmer temperatures, so that there is little correspondencebetween active layer depths and summer air temperature. We examined the interactions betweensummer warmth, vegetation (biomass, Leaf Area Index, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index),soil (texture and pH), and thaw depths at 17 sites in three bioclimate subzones of the Arctic Slopeand Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Total plant biomass in subzones C, D, and E averaged 421 g m 2 ,503 g m 2 , and 1178 g m 2 respectively. Soil organic horizons averaged 4 cm in subzone C, 8 cm insubzone D, and 14 cm in subzone E. The average late-August thaw depths in subzones C, D, and Ewere 44 cm, 55 cm, and 47 cm respectively. Non-acidic soils in equivalent climates generally haveshorter-stature sedge-dominated canopies and many frost boils, and consequently have thicker activelayers than acidic soils. The trends reported here are useful for palaeo-ecological reconstructions andpredictions of future ecosystem changes in the Low Arctic. Climate change will not lead to uniformthickening of the active layer, and could lead to shallower active layers in some presently dry areasdue to paludification. Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.KEY WORDS:active layer; NDVI; biomass; soil pH; frost boils; bioclimate subzonesINTRODUCTIONA major concern in Arctic climate change researchis that, with warming, active layers will deepen,possibly eliminating permafrost in some areas, and* Correspondence to: Dr D. A. Walker, Institute of Arctic Biology,University of Alaska - Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, USA.E-mail: ffdaw@uaf.eduCopyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.releasing stored carbon to the atmosphere. Deeperactive layers would also release more water to theArctic Ocean, dry the tundra, cause erosion anddamage to infrastructures, and change arctic systemsconsiderably (Kane et al., 1991; Jorgenson et al.,2001; Nelson et al., 2001). Current evidence indicatesthat permafrost has already warmed during the recentrecord in some parts of the Arctic (LachenbruchReceived 29 January 2003Revised 15 April 2003Accepted 15 April 2003
104 D. A. Walker et al.and Marshall, 1986). Understanding the interactionsamong vegetation, soils and active layers alongnatural climate gradients can aid in developingcircumpolar maps of active layer depths, and willhelp in predictions of how climate change will affectArctic systems.The studies summarized here were part of amultidisciplinary project called Arctic Transitions inthe Land-Atmosphere System, or ATLAS (McGuireet al., 2003). Previous studies in the FLUX project(Weller et al., 1995) focused on the 27 278 km2Kuparuk River region, central Arctic Slope, Alaska,where researchers developed regional approachesto map and model arctic vegetation, soils, activelayers, hydrology, and trace-gas fluxes. The ATLASstudies combined the information from the FLUXstudies with new information from sites in westernAlaska and the Seward Peninsula to achieve anunderstanding of the controls over fluxes across abroader area of the Arctic. One ATLAS goal was toexamine changes in the system at major transitionsor boundaries in the arctic system. The purpose ofthe studies reported in this paper is to examine howvegetation, soils, and thaw depth vary across thearctic bioclimate gradient in northern Alaska (insetto Plate 1). One objective was to determine if thepatterns of vegetation and active layers observedin the Kuparuk River basin could reasonably beextended across the Arctic Slope and expanded tothe warmer tundra on the Seward Peninsula as a steptowards developing a circumpolar map of active layerthickness.The Effect of Vegetation and Soils on the ActiveLayerChanges to the active layer caused by climate changeare likely to be affected by simultaneous changesto the vegetation and soils. Numerous studies havedemonstrated the clear linkages between climate,vegetation, soils, and the active layer, but the detailsof these linkages are not well understood (Benninghoff, 1966; Klene et al., 2001; Shiklomanovand Nelson, 2002, 2003, Vasiliev et al. 2003). Formodelling purposes, the thermal effects of vegetation and a host of edaphic variables affectingthaw have been lumped into an ‘edaphic parameter’, E, in the equation, ALT D EŁ SQRT(DDT),where ALT is the active layer thickness and DDTis the degree days of thawing (Anisimov et al.,2002). At present, the complex effect of vegetation and soil on the edaphic parameter is understoodonly in general terms. Vegetation shades the soilsand provides a blanket of insulation that reducesCopyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.summer heat flux. Moss and organic matter in thesoil increase the water holding capacity affectingthe hydrological properties. Thick moss carpets andorganic soil horizons decrease active layer thickness, consequently decreasing the depth to whichwater is able to drain because of the presence ofpermafrost (Kane, 1997). This process of waterlogging, or paludification, is thought to be the drivingmechanism behind long-term vegetation successionand changes in the active layer thickness in theLow Arctic (Walker and Walker, 1996; Mann et al.,2002).Palaeodata show that major changes in arcticvegetation have occurred during past climate changes(Mann et al., 2002, Bigelow et al., 2003), andmajor changes are expected in the future undera warming climate (Chapin III et al., 2000; Kittelet al. 2000; McGuire et al., 2000; Cramer, 1997;Kaplan et al., 2003). There is also good evidencethat some changes have already occurred to thevegetation in the recent past. For example, during thelast 50 years, shrub cover has increased over largeareas of northern Alaska (Silapaswan et al., 2001,Sturm et al., 2001b). This may be responsible fora relatively rapid greening observed over 20 yearsof satellite observations from arctic Alaska (Jia,2002, submitted). These changes are expected tohave an effect on the regional energy balances andcarbon budgets (Oechel et al., 1997) and would alsoaffect active layer thickness and permafrost regimes.Regional estimates of trace-gas flux can be linkedto the spatial variation of active layer thickness overlarge regions (Goulden et al., 1998).Vegetation is known to change in predictableways across the north-to-south arctic temperaturegradient (Figure 1). This is the principal basis forseveral approaches to arctic bioclimate zonation(Alexandrova, 1980; Elvebakk et al., 1999; Walkeret al., 2002). Mapping and modelling of numerous ecosystem variables in the Kuparuk Riverbasin of Alaska have shown strong correspondencebetween climate, vegetation, active layer patterns,and regional trace-gas fluxes (Hinzman et al., 1998;Muller et al., 1998; Nelson et al., 1998a; Reeburghet al., 1998; Oechel et al., 2000; Shiklomanov andNelson, 2002, 2003). A 13-year active layer mapping program in the Kuparuk River region ofnorthern Alaska demonstrated that, although thawdepths can exhibit substantial inter-annual variations in response to climatic forcing, vegetationtype is an important component of proceduresused to model spatial variation in active-layerthickness. Moreover, the ranking of active-layerPermafrost and Periglac. Process., 14: 103–123 (2003)
Arctic Slope BoundaryPlate 1 Location of the study sites with respect to broad vegetation types and bioclimate subzones. The vegetation map of the ArcticSlope is modified from Muller et al. (1999). The map of the Seward Peninsula is modified from an unpublished map (Thayer-Snyder,2000). The inset map shows the bioclimate subzones of the Arctic Zone in northern Alaska based on Walker et al. (2003). Red boundaryoutlines the area of the sand sea.Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 14 (2003)
Subzone CAcidic/nonacidicsoil boundarySubzone DSubzone EMaxNDVI .57-0.62 0.62Plate 2 Map of the Max NDVI in northern Alaska derived from AVHRR composite images. The image consists of pixels (1 ð 1-kmpicture elements) with highest NDVI among biweekly images from 1993 and 1995. The southern border of the image is clipped at treeline. The boundary between the yellow and green colours (arrow) is the boundary between primarily acidic tundra to the south andnon-acidic tundra to the north. This boundary approximately coincides with a physiographic boundary separating the Arctic Foothillsfrom the Arctic Coastal Plain, and a bioclimate boundary separating subzones D and E. The yellow areas are mainly tussock tundra.The green areas are less shrubby and dominated by graminoid plants. The light blue (lower NDVI) colours on the northern portion ofthe coastal plain are caused primarily by the abundance of lakes, which have low NDVI. The dark orange and red areas are shrubbierareas, and the darker blue colours are mainly barren areas in the Brooks Range.Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 14 (2003)
Vegetation-Soil-Thaw-Depth Relationships 105abcdFigure 1 Typical vegetation in each subzone. (a) Moist acidic coastal tundra at Barrow (subzone C). Note the lack of any erect shrubsand the dominance of graminoid plants (mostly Carex aquatilis ssp. stans, Eriophorum angustifolium, Dupontia fisheri, Poa arctica).(b) Moist non-acidic tundra at Franklin Bluffs (subzone D). Note the scattered erect dwarf shrubs (mostly Richardson’s willow (Salixrichardsonii) and dominance of graminoid plants (Carex bigelowii, C. membranacea, Eriophorum triste). (c) Moist acidic tundra atQuartz Creek (subzone E). Note the dominance of tussock cotton grass (Eriophorum vaginatum) and erect shrubs (Betula nana, Ledumpalustre ssp. decumbens, Rubus chamaemorus). (d) Shrub tundra near Council (warm maritime subzone E). Council is at tree line. Thedominant shrubs are about 1.5 m tall and include Betula glandulosa and Salix glauca.thickness among vegetation classes remains consistent from year to year (Shiklomanov and Nelson,2002).We were also interested in the transitions associated with different soil properties, particularly soilpH and soil texture. Studies across the KuparukRiver basin have noted strong correlations amongsoil pH, active layer thickness, and a wide variety ofecosystem variables (Bockheim et al., 1996). Thesecorrelations were attributed to the different nature ofthe vegetation growing on acidic versus non-acidicsoils (Walker et al., 1998; 2001) (Figure 2). Thestudies noted a boundary separating large regions ofacidic and non-acidic tundra at the northern edge ofCopyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.the Arctic Foothills (Plate 2). South of the boundary,there were higher values of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) caused by greenervegetation. North of the boundary, there were morestanding dead vegetation and barren frost boils, whichcontributed to low NDVI values. Studies near theboundary at Sagwon found that the soil pH of theupper mineral horizon averaged 5.2 south of theboundary and 6.9 north of the boundary (Walkeret al., 1998). The amount of bare soil was 10 timesgreater north of the boundary, and active layers were33% thicker (52 cm vs. 39 cm). Other studies foundgreater heat flux, higher diversity of plants, less of acarbon sink, and a smaller source of methane north ofPermafrost and Periglac. Process., 14: 103–123 (2003)
106 D. A. Walker et al.abFigure 2 (a) Moist acidic tundra at the Oumalik MAT site. Note the abundance of dwarf shrubs. Eriophorum vaginatum (cotton grass)is the dominant sedge (white inflorescences). The dominant shrubs are dwarf birch (Betula nana), Labrador tea (Ledum decumbens ssp.palustre), and diamond-leaved willow (Salix pulchra). (b) Moist non-acidic tundra near the Sagwon MNT site. Note the abundance offlowering forbs and standing dead grasses, mostly Arctagrostis latifolia, and relatively few erect deciduous shrubs. The dominant forbsinclude Lupinus arcticus, Oxytropis maydelliana, and Hedysarum alpinum. Other common plants include the sedges, Carex bigelowii,C. membranacea, C. scirpoidea, and Eriophorum triste, the prostrate dwarf shrubs, Dryas integrifolia, Salix reticulata, and Arctousrubra, and the moss Tomentypnum nitens. Numerous frost boils are hidden by the plant cover.the boundary in the non-acidic soils (Eugster et al.,1997; Reeburgh et al., 1998; Oechel et al., 2000).Snow depths and winter ground surface temperaturesalso change at this boundary (Liston and Sturm, 2002;Taras et al., 2002). We were particularly interested inseeing if the boundary between acidic and non-acidictundra observed near Sagwon extended across theentire Arctic Slope as suggested by the NDVI imagein Plate 2, and if it had the same effect on vegetation,soils, and thaw depths.Soil texture is also known to affect vegetation and active-layer thickness. Much of the nonmountainous portions of northern Alaska are coveredby fine-grained soils associated with windblown loessdeposits. An exception is a large sand sea west ofthe Colville River (Carter, 1981) (see Plate 1, moisttussock-sedge, dwarf-shrub tundra (sandy, acidic)).One of our study sites, Atqasuk, was located withinthis region. Previous studies in this region provided baseline information on the vegetation andsoils (Komárková and Webber, 1980; Everett, 1980).Other very large regions of sandy tundra occur onthe Yamal and Gydan peninsulas, Russia, and incoastal river deltas and glaciofluvial outwash depositsthroughout the Arctic.other microscale factors can cause major differencesin thaw depth. One important source of variationis patterned-ground, such as ice-wedge polygonsand frost boils. Frost boils are common on mostArctic zonal surfaces and are, therefore, particularlyrelevant to this study. Frost boils (also known asfrost scars, mud boils and mud circles) are small1–3 m diameter patterned ground forms with adominantly circular outline that lack a border ofstones (van Everdingen, 1998) (Figure 3). Frost boilsare abundant in silty soils such as those of northernAlaska. Numerous modes of their formation havebeen suggested (Washburn, 1956). The size andcharacter of frost boils changes across the Arcticbioclimate gradient (Chernov and Matveyeva, 1997;Matveyeva, 1998). One of our goals was to examinehow the patterns of vegetation and active layers onand between frost boils change from subzone C tosubzone E.Zonal Variation in Microscale Patterns of Vegetation and Active-layer ThicknessOur data came from 17 grids located at 12 sitesspread across the Arctic Slope and Seward Peninsula(Plate 1). The studies were done on grids and transectsof various sizes that were erected as part of theFLUX and ATLAS studies. Many of the sites wereSmall-scale differences in microrelief, soil moisture,and openness of the plant canopy and a host ofCopyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.METHODSStudy SitesPermafrost and Periglac. Process., 14: 103–123 (2003)
Vegetation-Soil-Thaw-Depth Relationships 107Figure 3 Comparison of physical variables for the study sites arranged by subzone. (a) SWI, (b) late-August depth of thaw, and(c) soil texture. Gaps in (b) are due to either missing data (Oumalik MNT and MAT), or rocky soils (Ivotuk MNT), or have nopermafrost (Council).located within or near 1 ð 1-km grids that wereused for eddy-correlation tower studies of tracegas and energy fluxes, and which are now part ofthe Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring (CALM)program (Brown et al., 2000) (Barrow, West Dock,Atqasuk, Happy Valley, Ivotuk). The eight sites inthe western portion of the region (Barrow, Atqasuk,Oumalik MNT (moist non-acidic tundra), OumalikMAT (moist acidic tundra), Ivotuk MNT, IvotukMAT, Council, and Quartz Creek) had 100 ð 100-mgrids with 10-m grid-point spacing. These grids wereestablished in 1998–1999. The vegetation, soils, andclimate were described and monitored at all theselocations. Each site had a climate station whereair and ground temperatures were monitored. SevenCopyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.locations near the Dalton Highway (Howe Island,West Dock, Deadhorse, Franklin Bluffs, SagwonMAT, Sagwon MNT, Happy Valley) had 10 ð 10 mgrids with 1-m grid point spacing. These grids wereestablished in 2000–2001. The smaller grid sizewas used to examine high-frequency spatial variationin active layers, vegetation and soils associatedwith frost boils. For Toolik Lake, we used datafrom permanent vegetation plots established in 1989and 1990.We used the bioclimate subzones of the Pan ArcticFlora and Fauna project (Elvebakk et al., 1999), andthe Circumpolar Arctic Vegetation Map (CAVM)(Walker et al., 2002a, b) as a framework for the study(see inset to Plate 1 and photographs in Figure 1).Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 14: 103–123 (2003)
108 D. A. Walker et al.Zonal vegetation and soils occur on flat or gentlysloping plains or hills with fine-grained soils and noextremes of snow, soil moisture, soil chemistry, ordisturbance (Vysotsky 1927). The sites were chosensubjectively to represent zonal vegetation whereverpossible. Exceptions occurred at Atqasuk, which hada sandy soil, and Howe Island, which had a dry windswept surface, more typical of zonal subzone C sitesin the Canadian High Arctic.Bioclimate subzone C, the coldest subzone, occursin a narrow strip along the northern coast of Alaska.Subzone D covers most of the Arctic Coastal Plainand the northwest portion of the Seward Peninsula,and subzone E covers most of the Foothills andmost of the non-forested portion of the SewardPeninsula. Barrow, West Dock, and Howe Island arein subzone C. Deadhorse, Franklin Bluffs, SagwonMNT, Atqasuk, and Oumalik MNT are in subzoneD. Sagwon MAT, Oumalik MAT, Happy Valley,Toolik Lake, Ivotuk, Quartz Creek, and Council arein subzone E. The low-shrub site at Council wasselected as representative of the zonal tundra situationat the Arctic tree line; shrublands are abundant onthe majority of mesic gentle slopes in the region.Wherever possible, we also selected sites on acidicand non-acidic soils within the same climate regimeto examine the effects of soil pH. This situationoccurred at Sagwon, Oumalik, and Ivotuk.The Dalton Highway is the only road that traversesthe area from north to south. Nine of the studysites were located at seven locations along this road(Plate 1). Most of the other sites are located nearremote airstrips. Four study sites were located in eachof the bioclimate subzones along a western transectfrom Barrow to Ivotuk. The most remote location,Oumalik, 100 km southeast of the nearest airstrip atAtqasuk, was accessed by helicopter. It was chosenbecause it is located on the western extension of theacidic/non-acidic boundary, and it has a history ofnearby vegetation and permafrost research (Ebersole,1985). The Quartz Creek and Council sites are on theSeward Peninsula in a warmer climate than anywhereon the Arctic Slope. Discontinuous permafrost ispresent over much of the peninsula (Brown et al.,1997). Quartz Creek is in a hilly tussock-tundraregion similar to the Foothills of northern Alaska,and provides a possible example of how the ArcticSlope might respond to a few degrees of summerwarming.Summer Warmth Index (SWI)Climate data came from several sources. The NationalWeather Service data were available for Barrow, Nome, and Umiat. Howe Island data cameCopyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.from the Endicott site established by the Minerals Management Service Beaufort Sea Meteorological Monitoring and Data Synthesis project(http://www.resdat.com/mms/index.cfm). The Toolik Lake data were from the Arctic Lake LongTerm Ecological Research site. The rest of thedata came from sites established by investigatorsin the ATLAS project. A mean SWI was calculated for each site. SWI is the sum of the meanmonthly temperatures greater than 0 C (thawingdegree months). We chose the SWI over an indexbased on thawing-degree days (TDD) because SWIis readily derived from monthly climate summariesand does not require daily information, a significantadvantage in this study, which used climate data fromseveral sources.Thaw DepthThe thaw measurements were taken from threedifferent years in mid- to late-August. Data frommost of the Dalton Highway sites (Howe Island,West Dock, Deadhorse, Franklin Bluffs, Sagwon,and Happy Valley) were collected in late-August2001. The Toolik Lake data were from permanentplots sampled in late-August 1989 (Walker andBarry, 1991). Data from Barrow, Atqasuk, Oumalik,Ivotuk, Quartz Creek, and Council were collectedfrom 1999. At Barrow, Atqasuk, and Quartz Creek(also called Kougarok) we used data from thenearby CALM grids (Brown et al., 2000). Thawdepths at Oumalik, although they are reportedhere, were collected too early in the season tobe useful for this study. Since we were interestedin broad geographic differences in zonal thawdepths and not small inter-annual differences, itwas reasonable to use data from different years,especially since the standard deviation of mean endof-summer thaw is 6 cm or less at all 12 northernAlaska sites in the CALM network (Brown et al.,2000).The thaw depth was monitored using a blunt tippedsteel probe that was inserted into the soil to the pointof contact with hard frozen soil. Measurements weretaken at 10 m intervals on the 100 ð 100-m grids(121 measurements per grid), and at 0.5 m intervalson the 10-m grids (441 measurements per grid). Thehigh density of sample points on the 10-m gridswas for resolving the pattern of thaw associated withfrost boils in each grid. On the permanent plots atToolik Lake, 10 measurements were taken withineach 10-m2 study plot. More recent informationindicates that the thawed layer can continue todeepen into September or even October; so ourPermafrost and Periglac. Process., 14: 103–123 (2003)
Vegetation-Soil-Thaw-Depth Relationships 109measurements should be considered ‘late-Augustthaw depth’ and not necessarily the full thicknessof the active layer. To maintain this distinction, weuse the term ‘thaw depth’ in subsequent sections ofthis paper.Vegetation DataBiomass.Clip harvests were collected from 20 ð 50-cm(0.1 m2 ) plots at all sites except Council, wherebiomass was collected from 1 ð 1-m plots. In the100 ð 100-m grids at Barrow, Atqasuk, Oumalik,Ivotuk, Council, and Quartz Creek, samples werecollected from 10 random grid points within thegrids. For the 10 ð 10-m grids in the vicinity ofthe Dalton Highway (Howe Island, West Dock,Deadhorse, Franklin Bluffs, Sagwon, and HappyValley) samples were collected from two 50-mtransects located adjacent to the grids. Three clipharvest samples were collected from each transectat 5 m, 25 m and 45 m points along the transects.The Toolik Lake data were obtained in permanentvegetation plots that were clipped in 1993; threereplicates were obtained from five moist non-acidicsites (15 clip harvests) and four acidic plots (12 clipharvests).The vascular plants were clipped at the top of themoss layer, or at the base of the green herbaceousshoots. Mosses were clipped at the base of the greenportion of the mosses. All the clip harvests werepartially sorted in the field according to major plantfunctional types (shrubs, graminoids, forbs, mosses,and lichens). They were frozen and sorted into finercategories (live and dead, deciduous and evergreenshrubs, foliar and woody) at a later time. After sorting,the samples were dried at 50 C to constant weightand stored for later nutrient analysis.Leaf Area Index (LAI).LAI was measured using a LI-COR LAI-2000Plant Canopy Analyzer. The instrument gave anindication of canopy cover based on differences indiffuse radiation above and below the plant canopy.At each sample point, an above-canopy reading wasfollowed by four below-canopy readings taken abovethe moss layer. The average of the four readingswas retained for the data analysis. A 90 field-ofview shield was used to prevent interference fromthe observers. All measurements were taken facingaway from the sun. The LAI readings should be takenon cloudy days to prevent problems with reflectionsin the plant canopy. This was not always possible,so on sunny days a sun shield was used to shadethe sensor from direct sunlight while at the sameCopyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.time providing an unobstructed view of the sky. Wecollected LAI data from 33 random points within thegrids of the six western sites. For the eastern transect,we collected LAI at 2-m intervals along two 50-mtransects (total of 50 points for each location). AtCouncil, LAI readings were taken at 121 points inthe 100 ð 100-m grid, with one up and one downmeasurement at each point. A mean LAI value wascalculated for each grid (N D 33) and each transect(N D 50). We did not make direct comparisons ofthe optical LAI values with destructive measures ofleaf area. A previous study of LAI using the LICOR 2000 instrument in arctic vegetation showedgenerally good correspondence between LAI, NDVI,and biomass, especially when examined across broadbiomass gradients (Shippert et al., 1995). Because thesites were chosen to be centrally located within largehomogeneous zonal landscapes, we assumed that themeans of the LAI and biomass were representative ofa larger area comparable to a remotely-sensed 1-kmpixel. This assumption, however, was not tested.NDVI.NDVI is an index of vegetation greenness.NDVI D NIR R)/(NIR C R), where NIR is thespectral reflectance in the near-infrared band(0.725–1.1 µm), dominated by light scattering fromthe plant canopy, and R is reflectance in thered, chlorophyll-absorbing, portion of the spectrum(0.58–0.68µm) (Markon et al., 1995). The NDVIdata were derived from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR onboard National Oceanographic and Aeronautical Administration (NOAA)satellites) images. AVHRR-derived NDVI timeseries data for 1995–1999 were obtained from theUS Geological Survey (USGS) Alaska Data Centeron CD-ROMs. These data were based on 14-daycomposite periods to match the processing of globaldata sets. We used the portion of the data between1 April and 31 October, which consistently brackets the snow-free period in northern Alaska andcovers the greenup-to-senescence phase of the vegetation (Markon, 1999). Only the portion coveringnorthern Alaska and the Seward Peninsula was usedfor the analysis. The original data were convertedinto a GRID coverage using ARC/INFO GRID software. Cloud and snow contamination were minimizedusing the Best Index Slope Extraction adaptive filter(Viovy, 2000). The filter is also designed to minimize registration errors that induce short-lived NDVIpeaks, which may occur in the compositing process.We used 1 : 60 000-scale colour-infrared aerialphotographs (acquisition dates, 1978 and 1982) todelineate 202 areas of homogeneous vegetation onacidic and non-acidic parent material in the vicinityPermafrost and Periglac. Process., 14: 103–123 (2003)
110 D. A. Walker et al.of the climate stations. This was the same data setused for the analysis of intra-seasonal patterns ofNDVI in relation to the climate record (Jia et al.,2002). Polygons were drawn around these areas onmylar transparent overlays. The aerial photographsand polygons were then digitized and geo-registeredto the AVHRR imagery using ARC/INFO software.To register the photographs to the AVHRR image, weused 127 control points from 1 : 63 360-scale USGStopographic maps. Of the 202 polygons on the aerialphotographs, 91 were large enough to locate on theAVHRR image. Although the dates of acquisitionfor the photographs and the satellite images weredifferent, we assumed that the broad vegetationpatterns had not changed, especially within largeareas of homogeneous zonal vegetation selected forthis study. The mean maximum NDVI (MaxNDVI)for each polygon was calculated from the set ofannual maximum NDVI values for all pixels withinthe polygon. These MaxNDVI values were then usedfor the correlation analyses with SWI, phytomass, andLAI. The temporally-integrated NDVI (IntegratedNDVI) is the sum of all the biweekly NDVIvalues during the green period. Green days are thenumber of days during which the NDVI exceeds0.9, and is the period during which most plants arephotosynthetically active.Soils DataAt each site, a soil pit of about 1 ð 1 m2 wasexcavated to 1 m depth with shovels and a gaspowered jackhammer. Soil morphological propertieswere described according to the Soil Survey Manual(Soil Survey Staff, 1993). Soil samples were takenfrom each horizon and shipped to either the PalmerResearch Center Laboratory or the National SoilSurvey Laboratory for characterization analysisaccording to standard USDA procedures (Soil SurveyStaff, 1993). Soil pH was measured in distilled water.Soil pH, sand, silt, and clay values used in thisanalysis are from the top mineral horizon. Particlesize distribution was determined with a hydrometerin th
University of Alaska - Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, USA. E-mail: ffdaw@uaf.edu releasing stored carbon to the atmosphere. Deeper active layers would also release more water to the Arctic Ocean, dry the tundra, cause erosion and damage to infrastructures, and change arctic s
SMAP will provide high-resolution and frequent-revisit global observations of soil moisture and freeze/thaw state 5 Soil moisture is defined in terms of volume of water per unit volume of soil Freeze/thaw state is defined as the phase of the water contained within the landscape including surface soil and vegetation
Spatial Resolution: Soil Moisture: 40 km (Hydroclimatology) Soil Moisture: 10 km (Hydrometeorology) Freeze-Thaw: 3 km (Heterogeneity) Temporal Sampling (Global Revisit): 2-3 Days Globally (Soil Moisture) 1 to 2 Days Above 45 N (Freeze-Thaw) Integrated Active and Passive L-band Sensors Oklahoma 10 0 12 0 140 160 180 2 00 22 0 240 260 2 80 30 .
3 Objectives of Soil Mechanics To perform the Engineering soil surveys. To develop rational soil sampling devices and soil sampling methods. To develop suitable soil testing devices and soil testing methods. To collect and classify soils and their physical properties on the basis of fundamental knowledge of soil mechanics. To investigate the physical properties of soil and
Table 6: Effect of fertilizer treatments and residues management practices on soil pH(1:5) at surface (0-20 cm soil depth) and sub-surface soils (20-45 cm soil depth) of site Guljaba over seasons 56 Table 7: Effect of fertilizer treatments and residues management practices on soil EC(1:5) (dS m-1) at surface (0-20 cm soil depth) and sub-
significantly with increasing depth, while soil organic matter (SOM), available nitrogen (AN), volume water content of soil (VWC), and soil temperature (ST) decreased significantly with increasing depth. Finally, the depth, total organic carbon (TOC), and AN had a significant impact on the bacterial and fungal communities' abundance (p 0.05).
Earth's terrestrial photosynthetic vegetation activity in support of phenologic, change detection, and biophysical interpretations. Gridded vegetation index maps depicting spatial and temporal variations in vegetation activity are derived at 16-day and monthly intervals for precise seasonal and interannual monitoring of the Earth’s vegetation.
Pasco County - 30% Native vegetation required. Polk County - Recommends native vegetation and includes native vegetation on the recommended plant list St. Lucie County - 50% Native vegetation or waterwise landscape required - Existing, native trees, vegetation and other natural features shall be preserved to the extent practicable.
Ann Sutherland Harris, Professor of Italian Baroque Art Henry Clay Frick Department of the History of Art and Architecture . I am profoundly grateful to my doctoral committee (Ann Sutherland Harris, David Wilkins, Anne Weis, Kathleen Christian, Francesca Savoia and Dennis Looney) for having faith in me, for offering direction when needed, and for their ample doses of .
