THE FORTRESS ECONO The Economic Role Oft U.S. Prison

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THE FORTRESS ECONOThe Economic Role o f tU.S. Prison Systemby Alexander C. Lichtenstein qnd Michael A. KrollEdited by Rachael Kame1A Project of theAmerican Friends Service Committee

The Fortress Economy: The Economic Role of theU.S. Prison Systemby Alexander C. Lichtenstein andMichael A. KrollEdited by Rachael Kame1Designed by Gerry HenryPrinted by the American FriendsService Committee printshop.ISBN: 0-910082-16-2

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison SystemIntroductionhen I moved to Philadelphiain 1981, I was aware thatamong the city's historical claims tofame was its designation as the"cradle of the penitentiary." Although the building is no longerstanding, what generally is regardedas the first "penitentiary house" wasput into use 200 years ago, in 1790.Constructed on the grounds of theformer Walnut Street Jail, it was abuilding" devoted to the solitarvconfinement of convicted felons. Therhetoric of that era was that convictsshould be kept away from evilinfluences in the environment, toreflect on their sins and becomepenitent.The founding of the penitentiarywas a key event in the long andtroubled history of the U.S. prisonsystem-a system that now is universally agreed to be in crisis. Not longafter setlling in Pennsylvania, I wasasked to serve on a statewide taskforce to address the severe andworsening crowding that was occurring in prisons and jails throughoutthe Commonwealth. Despite the presence of a distinguished array ofWcriminal justice experts and state andlocal officials, the scope of the taskforce's deliberations was confinedto a very narrow range. It was madequite clear that we were to accept asgiven the policies and practices thathad helped push prison and jailpopulations to higher and highcrlevels. Questions about Lhe longterm, about what the prison systemwas accomplishing and where it wasleading us, were not addressed.Across the country today, similarcommittees are meeting to considerhow to cope with the dramaticallyincreasing prison and jail population.Most often such groups restrict theirfocus to the immediate crisis. As aresult, they too fail to take a hardlook at the social forces underlyingcurrent trends--or the likely resultsof continuing on the same course.It is increasingly clear that theseissues are far too important to be leftin the hands of the small set ofofficials and administrators who noware deliberating about them. A farbroader group of people needs tobecome involved, especially representatives of those who are mostaffected by prisons-poor communi-

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison Systemties and communities of color. As asociety, we are in urgent need ofvigorous and creative dialogue aboutthe problems of crime and publicsafety and the uses and impact of theprison systern.This booklet on the economic roleof the prison system is offered as acontribution to that dialogue. It is oneof many resources and activitiesbeing launched in 1990 by theAmerican Friends Service Committee, through its project, "200 Yearsof the Penitentiary: Breaking Chains,Forging Justice." This project hasbeen undertaken in response to therapidly spiraling increase in imprisonment and the deeply troublingproblems of crime, violence, anddrug abuse affecting communities ofcolor throughout the United States.In a range of local and nationalforums, the project will bring together leaders and activists fromthese and olher communities to sharetheir experiences and perspectivesand to suategize solutions to thecrisis.The development of this bookletreflects AFSC's firm conviction thatany effort to examine the prisonsystem must encompass the social,economic, and political context withinwhich that system operates. It alsoreflects the understanding that thestated purposes of prisons are not theonly functions they serve.For myself, I will never forget myreaction on first walking through theBaltimore City Jail on a hot summer's day. "This is a modem-daypoorhouse," I thought, "and it is apoorhouse filled with young Blackmen." This and other encounterswith prisons and prisoners havemoved me to seek a better understanding of who goes to prison andwhy, as well as of the effects ofimprisonment, both on those confined and on the broader society.Throughout their 200-year history,prisons have fultilled a variety ofunstated and often unconscionablefunctions. Such institutions alwayshave done at once much more andmuch less than they are said to do.This booklet helps bring into the lightsome of the unacknowledged functions of prisons, inviting debate ontheir acceptability and encouragingexploration of more constructive alternatives.-M. Kay HarrisDepartment of Criminal JusticeTemple University

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison SystemThe Fortress Economyn the contemporary United States,few topics are more volatile thancrime and the problem of how societyshould respond to it. The fear ofstreet crime leaves countless peopletrapped in their homes. Illegal drugsand the violence they engender arewidely considered our society's mostserious problem. For politicians, nothing spells ruin so quickly as beingperceived as "soft on crime.''In this atmosphere, a chorus ofvoices is demanding that the criminaljustice system "get tough" withoffenders. More prisons, longer jailterms, fewer restraints on the actionsof police and the courts: these are themeasures that are proposed to makeour streets safe and curb the violencein our daily lives.It is unfashionable in the extremeto question whether such policieswill actually work. Those who do areoften dismissed as fools, "bleedinghearts" who care more for criminalsthan for their victims. Yet the questions demand to be asked. Taxpayersare called upon to spend billions ofdollars every year to build biggerprisons and lock up more and moreIof our fellow citizens. Is this moneywell spent? Whose pockets is it goinginto? Will it bring justice to offendersor security to the law-abiding?These questions about money arefar from trivial. As a way of protecling the public or stopping crime, LheU.S. prison system can only be seenas a monumental mistake-an insanejuggernaut whose only rule is to keepgrowing. But when prisons are analyzed as economic institutions-interms of both their own structure andtheir function within the larger society-they begin to make a grim kindof sense.'Illis pamphlet explores some ofthe economic aspects of the prisonsystem. It examines who goes toprison and why-and how this relates to larger trends within the U.S.economy. It also takes a look at theeconomics of the prison industryitself. This approach can teach us alot about what is wrong with ourprisons. Most important, it can suggest some directions for more justand more effective- solutions to theproblems of crime and violence.

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison System"-A Convincing Case of Failure9'Imprisonment is usually justifiedby appeals to one of two philosophies: protecting the public orrehabilitating the prisoner. By eitherstandard, howcver, the evidence isoverwlielming hat prisons do notwork.Those states that have the highestbudget for law enforcementincludirig courts, prisons, probation,and parole-also have the highestlevels of crimc. If there is anyempirically established relationshipbetween crime and imprisonment, itis that prisons fostcr crime.This is not to say that prisonsfunction mainly as "schools forcrime," although it is partly true thatpeople in prison do learn new criminal skills. Far more important is thatprisons are violent institutions whichbrced violent individuals. In thewords of psychiatrist Seymour Halleck, "If one had systematically anddiabolically tricd to create mentalillness, [one] could probably haveconstructed no better system than theAmerican prison system.''Even the staunchest advocates ofrepressive "law-and-order" policieshave hardly a good word for prisons.The former chief justice of the U.S.Supreme Court, Warren Burger, onceasked rhetorically, "What businessenterprise could conceivably continue with the rate of 'recall' of its'products' that we see with respectto . . . our prisons?" The answer isobvious: none. Likewise, former U.S.President Richard Nixon, known inWe hold these truths to beself-evident: That all men arecreated equal; that they areendowed by their Creator withcertain inalienable rights; thatamong these are life, liberty, andthe pursuit of happiness.4 . S . Declaration of independence,July 4,1776his day for his extremely conservative views, once termed prisons "aconvincing case of failure."At present, the United States hasthe third highest rate of incarcerationin the industrialized world, surpassedonly by South Africa and the SovietUnion. Nonetheless, crime continuesto plague our society to a degreeunknown in other countries-

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison Systemcountries which do not come closeto our rate of imprisonment.In this context, the image of the"bleeding heart liberal1'-that universal object of scorn-isone thatdeserves particular scrutiny. Implicitin this characterization is an assumption that public safety and socialjustice are somehow .at odds-thatpolicies which protect the civil rightsof prisoners or challenge racism inthe prison system cannot really beeffective in stopping crime.A far more compelling case canbe made that social justice is arequirement for public safety. Racism and economic bias are structuralfeatures of the U.S. prison system.Understanding this relationship canyield important insights into whythat system functions so poorly toprotect the public.Who Goes to PrDoes Not?tudies have shown that more than90 percent of the adult populationhas committed offenses that arepunishable by imprisonment. Few,however, actually go to prison.Contrary to popular belief, theseriousness of a crime is not themost crucial element in predictingwho goes to prison and who doesnot. Society's losses from "whitecollar crime" far exceed the economic impact of all burglaries, robberies, larcenies, and auto theftscombined. Nonetheless the formerclass of criminals are far less likelySnd Whoto go to jail than the latter. One studyfound, for example, that 53 percentof low-income defendants receivedEqual Justice Under Law- Mottocarvedover the U.S. SupremeCourt buildingprison sentences, compared to only26 percent of high-income defendants.The violence of a crime is anotherway of measuring its seriousness.Are prisons mainly reserved for thedangerously violent? The answer is

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison SystemI1I,again no. Well over half of allprisoners were convicted of crimesthat did not include violence, suchas burglary, larceny, drug possession,or disturbing the peace.Blackmen born in the U.S. andfortunate enough to live past theage of eighteen are conditionedto accept the inevitability ofprison. For most of us, it simplylooms as the next phase in asequence of humiliations.-George Jackson, Soledad Brofher, 1970What does determine who goes toprison? A large part of the answer iscertainly race. Today, for example,African-American males are 6 percent of the U.S. population, yetnearly 50 percent of prison inmates.The California Youth Authority imprisons more than 9000 youngsters,more than any other jurisdiction inthe counrry. Some 75 percent areyoung people of color. (Sun JoseMercury News, 19 February 1989.)Detailed breakdowns for differentcommunities of color are difficult todetermine, in part because of the waygovernment statistics are gathered.A listing of the total state and federalprison population for 1987 gave noseparate figures for Latinos; thatsame year, Latinos were listed as 14percent of the inmates of county jails,a number roughly double their proportion in the population. (Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Stafistics,1988.) Native Americans are generally listed as 1 percent or less of theprison population, but they too areimprisoned at a vastly disproportionate rate, and prisons have acrippling impact on Native Americancommunities.Nationwide, the rate of imprisonment for African-Americans is ninetimes that for Euro-Americans. In tenstates, all in the North, the incarceration rate for African-Americans ismore than fifteen times that forwhites.Another striking indicator of institutional racism is the lengths of prisonterms. When time served is comparedfor similar offenses-including firsttime offenders-African-Americansservefar longer sentences than whites.In the federal prison system, sentences for African-Americans are 20percent longer for similar crimes. Iftime served by African-Americanswere reduced to parity with whites,the federal system would require3000 fewer prison cells--enough toempty six of their newest 500-bedprisons.

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison SystemSteal a pair of shoes and go toprison; steal a railroad and goto the U.S. Senate.-MotherJones.While 3 percent of adult whitemales are under some type of correctional control (incarceration, probation, or parole), for adult AfricanAmerican males the figure rises to10 percent. Black males have an 18percent chance of serving time in ajuvenile or adult prison at some timein their lives; white males have a 3percent chance. (Bureau of JusticeStatistics, "Report to the Nation onCrime and Justice," 1987.)Women make up only 5 percentof the total U.S. prison and jailpopulation. Their numbers, however,are even more heavily drawn fromcommunities of color. More than 60percent of incarcerated women areAfrican-American or Latina. In the1980s, the rate of imprisonment forwomen has grown even faster thanfor men-paralleling the disproportionate growth of the numbers ofwomen living in poverty. Most womenprisoners were convicted of' shoplifting, prostitution, or other economiccrimes. (Federal Probaiion, March1986.)Such institutionalized racism hasbcen a feature of the U.S. prisonsystem since its inception. In 1796,the New York legislature voted onthe same day to free all slavesresiding in the state and to authorizethe state's first prison. In 1833,French writer Alcxis de Tocquevillereported that African-Americans accounted for 25 percent of U.S. prisoninmatcs, although their pcrcentagcof the total population was flusmallcr than it is today.In this context it is significant thatthe Thirteenth Amendment to theU.S. Constitution, which abolishedslavery, carved out one exception,permitting involuntary labor ''as punishment for crime." In the South,dter the Civil War, the chain gangand convict lease quickly became thedominant forms of punishment. Prisoners were sold to the highesl bidderand worked in coal mines, brickyards, or turpentine camps. Otherswere used by the states to work onbadly needed improvcments to roadsand other public works. Over 90perccnt of these Southern convictswere African-American.Nonetheless, while racism is clearlyan important force in the constructionof the U.S. prison population, it isobviously not the only one. Eventhough people of color are impris-

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison Systemoned at a disproportionate rate, amdjority of prison inmates are stillwhites. To fully appreciate the func-tioning of the prison system, wemust also understand the impact ofeconomic class.Jailing the Unemployedcross all racial groups, prisonersare drawn from the poorestsectors of society. A large percentagetime of theirare unemployed atmcst or have only sporadic employnient. Of those will1 jobs, many havecomes near or below the Povertylevel- Seventy-two Percent of prisoninmates and 60 Percent of jail inmates have not completed high school;many are illiterate. (Bureau of JusticeStatistics, "Report to the Nation onCrime and Justice," 1987.)The social policies of the 1980scaused an unprecedented increase inthe numbers of people living inpoverty in the United States, as wellas a widening gap between theincomes and living standards of therich and poor. Throughout this entireperiod, prison populations grew r a pidly. With budgets slashed for everytype of social service, prisons nowAstand out as the country's principalgovernment program for the poor.Most of the people behind barshave committed economic crimes. Asampling of prison admissions in1983revealed that close to 49 percentof all convictions were for propertyoffenses like burglary, larceny, orauto theft. Another 14 percent wereyou go back in histot,, andplot the populationall.ons. and compare it to all theother variables you can think of,you will find a positive correlation only with unemployment.The higher the rate of joblessness, the higher the rate ofprison commitments. There isno question about it.Carlson,D i r a o r , US.Bureauof

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The EconomicRole of the U.S. Prison Systemfor robbery-which, though classified as a violent crime because itinvolves taking property from aperson, is nevertheless economicallymotivated.The statistical link between unemployment or underemployment andimprisonment is borne out in thedemographic characteristics of prisonpopulations. In 1983, 47 percent ofall those jailed (about 110,000 people) were unemployed at the time oftheir arrest. seventy-one percentearned less than 10,000 a year. Stateprison populations reveal a similarlink. In Florida, for example, ofnearly 30,000 people imprisoned in1986, barely half (52 percent) wereemployed full-time at the time oftheir arrest. Nearly half earned lessthan 500 a month. (Annual Report,Florida Department of Corrections,1986.)In 1976, the Joint Economic Committee of Congress heard testimony thatthere was "wide agreement thatunemployment creates economic andpsychological stress that frequentlyis manifested in criminal behavior. ' 'The committee also heard figuresshowing that each 1 percent increasein unemployment sustained over asix-year period could be associatedwith an increase of more than 3000new state prison admissions. (M.Harvey Brenner, "Estimating theSocial Costs of National EconomicPolicy," Joint Economic Committeeof Congress, 1976.) From this perspective, prisons may be seen asThe state is giving u s two prisons. That's 2000 jobs! That's likeapple pie.-EdMcCrav (president, Chamber o tCommerce, El Centro, California)warehouses for people who have noplace in the economic order.Prison inmates are mostly part ofwhat is known as the "secondarylabor market." Such people tend towork intermittenlly at low-payingjobs and see little hope for changein their future. The slightest misfortune may drive entire families intodesperate poverty. The contemporaryU.S. economy relies on the presenceof a large .pool of such temporary,underpaid workers to fill the deadend service jobs that are increasinglycoming to dominate the labor market.As fewer manufacturing jobs areavailable, the possibilities for stable,secure employment and economicadvancement are shrinking for allworking people.In such an economy, high unemployment rates benefit employers who

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U . S . Prison Systemoffer minimum-wage jobs, by ensuring the presence of a flexible poolof less-skilled workers. Those whomove in and out of such jobs areoften the same people who fill thejails and prisons. As the poor becomeever more marginalized in h e economy, their numbers in prison growaccordingly.Ironically, in some cases prisonshave been touted as a solution toeconomic decline, especially in ruralareas. Prisons, filled with unemployed people of color from the innercities, are being sold to economicallydepressed rural communities as asource of jobs for their growingnumbers of unemployed-who areusually whites. "A new correctionscenter can be a real economic boostto a rural community, especially ifthe community lacks a major localindustry," says William Choquette,a senior vice-president of GilbaneBuilding Company, an architecturalfirm specializing in prison construction.The Federal Bureau of Prisons hasrecenrly published a brochure on thevalue of prisons to rural communities. "With local economies ailingin many parts of the country," thebureau states, "local leaders oftenFor every person who goes toprison, two people don't go tocollege. For every day a personis in jail, twenty children eatstarch instead of protein.--American Prisons and Jails, 1978, Vol. Isee a potential federal prison as arecession-proof economic base." (Acquiring New Prison Sites: The Federal Experience.) In fact, prisons aremore than "recession-proof": theyare the one industry that benefitsfrom recession. In 1983, a year ofdeep economic recession, the Bureauof Labor Statistics ranked correctionsas the twelfth fastest growing occupation in the United States.The apparent economic boost offered by prisons is deceptive, however, because it is artificial andnonproductive. In this respect, prisons are similar to military bases.Prison jobs are hazardous and lowpaying; according to the CorrectionsYearbook, in 1987 the average entrylevel salary for a prison guard wasbarely 15,000. Rural communitiesquickly become dependent on theprison, which will never producerevenue or expand a community'seconomic base.

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison SystemPrisons and the Social Fabriche discussion above is not intended to minimize the seriousness of crime, whether violent ornot. The point is rather that swellingthe prison population has failed toreduce crime. The racial and economic bias built into the prisonsystem also works against crimevictims. Poor people and people ofcolor are also the most frequentvictims of crime, and they stand tosuffer the most from repressive policies that fail to stop, and in manyways fuel, criminal activities.Prisons illustrate how racial andeconomic discrimination reinforceone another. As noted above, prisoninmates are drawn from the ranks ofthe economically marginalized of allraces. As an institution, however,prisons have a far greater impact oncommunities of color, because oftheir disproportionate representationin prison populations.In New York State, for example,one out of every twenty-three AfricanAmerican males aged twenty tothirty-four was in prison in 1985. ACalifornia study found that seven outof ten African-American men werearrested at least once in their earlyTadult years. ("Disproportionate Imprisonment of Blacks in the U.S.,"National Association of Blacks inCriminal Justice.)These high incarcerationrates parallel the harsher impact of economicdislocation on communities of color.The official unemployment rate forAfrican-Americans, somewhere between 15 and 20 percent, is twicethat of Euro-Americans. Median income for African-American familiesis 56 percent that of white families.Thirty percent of Black householdshave no assets, surviving on whatthey earn week by week. Further,official unemployment rates significantly underestimate the real rate ofunemployment. One study, for example, demonstrates that at any giventime 43 percent of African-Americanmen are without jobs. (Tom Joe,"Economic Inequality: The Picturein Black and White," Crime andDelinquency 33, April 1987.)All of these forces have a profoundly negative effect on a community's ability to sustain family life.Women are increasingly left aloneto face the responsibilities of economic survival and child-rearing.

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison SvstemThey, too, have little access to stableemployment, while at the same timesocial services of all types have beencut almost to nothing.Of those women who fall underthe control of the prison system, alarge proportion are single mothers.Thus another effect of prisons is theplacing of countless children intofoster homes or juvenile detentioncenters. The economic costs of maintaining so many children and youthunder state control are very high. Thehuman costs, stretchingon into futuregenerations, are incalculable.More fian with any other groupin' society, the cycle of impoverishment and imprisonment has a devastating impact on young people ofcolor. In 1984, more than 46 percentof African-American children livedbelow the poverty level. While theoverall incarceration rate for juveniles was 185 per 100,000, that forLatino youth was seven times higher,at 481 per 100,000; for Black youth,a staggering 810 per 100,000.(Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics,1985.)The economics of the ghetto meanthat for survival, parallel illegaleconomies have sprung up, furtherreinforcing the patterns of crime andimprisonment. "Kids sell drugs toget money," asserts San FranciscoSheriff Mike Hennessey. "It's thatsimple." He recommends an economic recovery plan along the linesof the New Deal's Civilian Conservation Corps and other governmentjobs programs as the only way toredevelop the inner cities. "We needto take the millions of dollars slatedfor construction and operation ofprisons and at least match it with jobtraining and placement programs,"says the sherirf. "If we, as a nation,tried as hard to create job opportunities for unemployed youth as the drugsellers try to sell drugs, the battlewould be more than half won."It is unrealistic to expect [exprisoners] to function as autonomous and independent individuals in society after their release.-"What Prisons Do to People," New YorkSlate Defenders Association, May 1985Instead, many young people giveup early on a fruitless search formeaningful employment and economic advancement, drop out of analienating school environment, andlook to crime as their only path toeconomic gain. Under these circumstances, jails, juvenile homes, andprisons often play a more powerful

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison Systemsocializing role for thousands ofyoung people than school, family,or work.In contemporary U.S. society, alienation and drugs are a critical problemfor all youth, not just young peopleof color. A major new study of350,000 young people found thatdrug and alcohol use by whitestudents actually exceeded that byAfrican-American youth, in somecases by a very wide margin. "In noschool studied so far, whether fedby low-income housing projects oraffluent suburbs, [was] alcohol anddrug use as high among Blackstudents as among white," saysMarsha Keith Schuchard, researchdirector for the Parents' ResourceInstitute for Drug Education (PRIDE),which conducted the study. (Philadelphia Inquirer, 19 December 1989.)This finding exposes the racismof media images that depict drugs asmainly an inner city problem. Oneeffect of such false images is thatthey build support among whites forexpansion of the prison system. Asa result, the social fabric is damagedfor white communities as wellbecause public resources are directedtoward incarcerating the most marginalized members of society, ratherthan developing real solutions to themyriad problems posed by alcoholand drug abuse.While substance abuse may be auniversal problem, it is still true thatthe violence engendered by the illegal drug trade falls most heavily oncommunities of color. Prisons, meanwhile, are simply an added force forviolence, despair, and communitydestruction.

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison SystemDilemmas of Ex-OffendersAt San Quentin state prison inCalifornia, when certain prisoners complete their sentences, they aretaken, handcuffed, to the gate, given 200, uncuffed, and sent alone intothe world, presumably to begin a newlife as law-abiding citizens. In reality, however, ex-prisoners face uemendous obstacles when they try tobecome productive members of society.The prison experience does littleto provide a prisoner with skills orresources to find a job outside. Prisoninmates must adapt to a world whosesurvival skills are often diametricallyopposed to those that promote survival in the outside world. Prisonpunishes independent thinking andaction. It promotes the violent resolution of personal conflicts and breaksapart the bonds of friends and family.Prisons foster dependency, idleness,violence, and the deterioration ofhuman relationships-allof whichmake reintegrationinto freedom muchmore difficult."A person coming out of prisonhas four choices," notes a 1982 studyby the New York-based Vera Institute of Justice. "He (sic) can get ajob, which will be difficult; he cango on welfare, which is demeaningand difficult;he can commitcrimes; or he can die. . If jobs arenot accessible, more will opt forcrime. "Tragically, the statistics bear outthis conclusion. An estimated 62.5percent of prisoners released in 1983in eleven states were rearrested for afelony or seriousmisdemeanorwithinthree years of discharge. Of releasedprisoners twenty-five years old orless with more than ten previousarrests, 94 percent were rearrestedwithin three years. ("Recidivism ofPrisoners Released in 1983," Bureauof Justice Statistics.).Just think what a catastrophe itwould cause if all cons acrossthe country decided never tocommit another crime. Think ofhow many different hands I gothrough from the time I'm arrested. Lots of dollars and lotsof jobs. We are your bread andbutter.-Henry Abernathy (serving life in Texarfor bank robbery)

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison SystemMost people who end up in prisoncome from environments where unemployment and underemployment areendemic, and adding the stigma of"ex-con" does not enhance theirjob-finding potential. A criminal record may serve as a legal bar frommany occupations and sectors of theeconomy. When work is available, itis often low-paying and sporadic.For those ex-prisoners who do findwork, their median income is 50percent lower than for the rest of thelabor force. (Money, Work, andCrime: Experimental Evidence, Academic Press, 1980.) boking forwork without any economic cushionpromotes panic and a sense ofdegradation that can trap exoffenders in a downward spiral.Often they return to economicallydepressed neighborhoods and mustrely on impoverished family members for support. Ex-prisoners areinevitably suspects in the eyes of thelocal police and are therefo

THE FORTRESS ECONOMY: The Economic Role of the U.S. Prison System The Fortress Economy I n the contemporary United States, few topics are more volatile than crime and the problem of how society should respond to it. The fear of street crime leaves countless people trapped in thei

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