Whole Grain Saltine Crackers: Formulation, Processing, And .
See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: Whole Grain Saltine Crackers: Formulation,Processing, and Quality ImprovementsArticle in Cereal Foods World · July 2013DOI: 10.1094/CFW-58-4-0180CITATIONSREADS0803 authors, including:Gary HouWheat Marketing Center40 PUBLICATIONS 487 CITATIONSSEE PROFILESome of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:Soft wheat functionality View projectWhole grain products View projectAll content following this page was uploaded by Gary Hou on 20 December 2016.The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
Whole Grain Saltine Crackers: Formulation,Processing, and Quality ImprovementsJ. LiJiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu,PRC, and Wheat Marketing Center,Inc., Portland, OR, U.S.A.G. G. Hou1Wheat Marketing Center, Inc.Portland, OR, U.S.A.Z. ChenJiangnan UniversityWuxi, Jiangsu, PRCIn recent years, greater emphasis hasbeen placed on the health benefits ofwhole grains. In 1999, AACC International (AACCI) adopted the followingdefinition for whole grains /WholeGrains/wgflyer.pdf): “Whole grainsshall consist of the intact, ground, crackedor flaked caryopsis, whose principal anatomical components—the starchy endosperm, germ, and bran—are present inthe same relative proportions as they existin the intact caryopsis.”The strong appeal of whole grains isdriven by the nutritional benefits theyoffer versus refined flours. Studies haveshown that whole grains contain highconcentrations of nutrients and phytochemicals and are rich in dietary fiber,resistant starches, oligosaccharides, vitamins, trace minerals, and antioxidants,including phytate, phytoestrogens, andphenolic compounds, with known healthbenefits (9). Compared with other cerealgrains, barley contains relatively high levels of -glucan (2), a soluble polysaccharide with health-promoting propertiesthat include helping reduce the healthrisks associated with high cholesterol andhigh blood pressure (19,20).Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that whole grain intake can reducethe risk of certain cancers, cardiovasculardisease, type 2 diabetes, obesity, and stroke1Corresponding author. E-mail: ghou@wmcinc.org; Tel: 1.503.295.0823; Fax: 0180 2013 AACC International, Inc.180 / JULY–AUGUST 2013, VOL. 58, NO. 4(10), as well as provide prebiotic benefitsand lower the risk of gum disease, toothloss, and asthma (5,16). The USDA DietaryGuidelines for Americans, 2010 (18) recommends that at least 50% of all grainsconsumed should be whole grains. In May2013, the AACCI Board of Directorsapproved the AACCI Whole Grains Working Group’s characterization of wholegrain products. The characterizationasserts that a whole grain food productmust contain 8 g or more of whole grainper 30 g of product inProductCharacterization.aspx).Crackers, an important product linewithin the large-scale baking industry,can be divided into three broad categories: chemical, enzyme, and saltine (soda)(11). Saltine cracker production typicallyutilizes a sponge-and-dough ( 24 hr fermentation) preparation method. The prolonged sponge fermentation produces theunique flavor and crispy texture associated with saltine crackers (13). In contrast, chemical crackers typically requirea leavening system that does not utilizesourdough starter and yeast. In additionto leavening agents, enzymes (proteinases) are incorporated into the formulation of enzyme crackers. Both chemicaland enzyme crackers are relatively simpleto handle and require less time to manu-facture. However, they lack the uniqueflavor of saltine crackers imparted by thesourdough starter and yeast fermentation.Although laboratory-scale methods forproducing traditional saltine and chemical crackers have been developed (7,12,14), there is no consensus method forproducing whole grain crackers. In addition, the processing and quality characteristics of these products can be negativelyaffected by use of whole grain flour. Thelimited gluten strength and high waterabsorption of whole grain flour inhibitthe formation of a gluten network, whichresults in reduced oven spring duringbaking (8).There has been little research performedon the quality characteristics of wholegrain saltine crackers. This article reportson the effects of whole grain flour on thequality attributes of saltine crackers andthe use of functional ingredients toimprove the end-product quality of wholegrain crackers.Whole Wheat Saltine CrackerPreparationWhole wheat cracker flour sampleswere composited from blends of softwhite whole wheat (SWWW; Ultragrain,ConAgra Flour Mills Inc.), soft red winterwheat (SRW; Golden Shield, enriched andunbleached, General Mills, Inc.), and hard
red winter wheat (HRW; Harvest Kingwinter wheat, enriched and unbleached,General Mills, Inc.) flours. Preliminarytrials determined that the optimum blendlevel of HRW flour was 15% based on thebreaking strength of the end-products (atHRW 20%, end-product texture washarder and less crispy). HRW flour wasadded at the same level in each group,except for the 100% SWWW group (TableΙ). Whole wheat cracker flour blends wereanalyzed for protein, moisture, ash, starchdamage, wet gluten, and gluten indexaccording to AACCI Approved Methods(Table II) (1).The whole wheat saltine cracker formulations used are detailed in Table III. Baking soda, mineral yeast food, vegetableshortening, and instant dry yeast werepurchased from a local supermarket. Allingredients were scaled on a 500 g flourweight basis. The original sourdoughstarter was supplied by Oregon State University and maintained by adding oldstarter (50 g), HRW flour (100 g), anddistilled water (50 g) daily during thecourse of the study. Water was added atthe minimum level of cracker flourabsorption, rather than the maximumlevel, to develop a dough wet enough tosheet, yet dry enough to avoid the formation of an elastic dough. More water wasrequired in the preparation of spongedough that contained higher levels ofSWWW flour to achieve proper doughhandling and processing characteristics.Any excess water must be removedthrough baking, which results in a longerbaking time (15). Total titratable acidity(TTA) tests were used as indicators of thefermentation process. The amount ofbaking soda to be added was determinedbased on the TTA of the sponge after18 hr of fermentation and the pH of theend-products ( 7.0–8.0). The amount ofbaking soda required based on spongeTTA is listed in Table IV.A laboratory-scale, whole grain saltinecracker-making process is illustrated in aschematic diagram (Fig. 1). The spongeingredients were combined in a mixer(Hobart A-200 mixer and McDuffy mixing bowl, National Manufacturing, Co.).The sponge was fermented at 28 C and85% RH in a fermentation cabinet for18 hr. After 18 hr of fermentation, theremaining flour, water, shortening, anddry ingredients (Table III) were combinedwith the fermented sponge. The doughwas mixed and placed in the fermentationcabinet to proof for another 2 hr. Afterthe dough was proofed, 500 g of crackerdough was placed in a plastic container toshape into a rectangular dough block(15 13.5 2.5 cm). The shaped doughblock was laminated into a thin sheet(SSO-615 Seewer reversible laminationmachine, Rondo Inc.). Dough laminationsettings are provided in Table V. The finalheight, width, and length of the doughsheet were 1.5 mm, 22.5 cm, and 40.0 cm,respectively. The dough sheet was transferred to a specially designed cutter-docker(14), and the dough sheet was perforatedusing a rolling pin. The dough sheet wassprinkled with salt and rested under acovered couche for 1 min. The crackerdough sheet was then transferred to aspecially designed wire mesh belt (CB5Baking Band, Ashworth) on a rectangular-shaped rack that was preheated in adeck oven (PICCOLOI-3, Wachtel Company) for 30 min. The top-level bakingtemperature was 220 C, and the bottomlevel baking temperature was 215 C. Thebaking time was 6–7 min. After thecracker dough was properly baked, thecracker sheet was removed from the oven,and vegetable oil was sprayed on the surface. After cooling, the cracker sheet wasbroken into individual pieces along theperforated lines and sealed in plastic bagsat room temperature until analyzed.End-product EvaluationThe stack height, stack weight, specificvolume, and breaking strength of thewhole wheat saltine crackers were determined. The data shown in Table VI indicate that cracker characteristics wereaffected by the composition of the wholewheat flour blend used. Stack weight,stack height, specific volume, and breaking strength of crackers decreased as theFig. 1. Schematic diagram of laboratory-scale, whole grain saltine cracker production. WWF: whole wheat flour.CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 181
addition level of SWWW flour increased.Higher amounts of whole wheat flourtended to yield an uneven internal texturewith less puffiness. Crackers with higherlevels of SWWW flour were also morefragile (less breaking force). As expected,the color of the end-products becamebrowner and darker with increasingamounts of whole wheat flour in theblend (Fig. 2).End-product Quality ImprovementA cracker is a low-moisture product.The high water-absorbing capacity ofwhole wheat flour requires the addition ofextra water during the preparation ofwhole wheat cracker dough. Any excesswater added to the formulation must thenbe removed during baking, which increasesthe baking time and energy consumptionof cracker production. Another difficultyencountered in the production of wholewheat crackers is the limited glutenstrength caused by the shearing and dilution of wheat bran. The resulting weakgluten network reduces the gas retentioncapacity of the wheat dough and the ovenspring of the baked product (8).Several functional ingredients can beused to improve the quality of wholeFig. 2. Whole wheat saltine crackers made from blends of five levels of soft white whole wheat(SWWW) flour.182 / JULY–AUGUST 2013, VOL. 58, NO. 4grain crackers. For example, endoxylanases can be used to decrease the waterholding capacity of wheat bran (waterunextractable arabinoxylans) and redistribute water in the dough system (4).They can also be used to increase theextensibility of dough and softness ofbread and other leavened products and toimprove dough handling and machinability (15). Gum arabic is a natural gum exudate with a highly branched, compactarabinogalactan structure that produces alow-viscosity solution and a central protein fraction that provides good emulsification properties. It is a multifunctionalingredient with properties that enable itsuse as a texturizing agent, film former,emulsifier, and stabilizer (17). Gum arabicoffers many benefits for bakery productsin terms of processing, texture, and shelflife due to its moisture regulation andfilm-forming properties. Vital wheat gluten traditionally has been used to improvedough strength and film formation, mixing and fermentation tolerances, gasretention and product volume, structurein whole grain products, and flavor, aswell as to reduce breakage in snack products (6). Using the low-field nuclear magnetic resonance technique, we found thatthe addition of endoxylanases, gum arabic, or vital wheat gluten increases watermobility from the arabinoxylan matrix togluten, which aids in the formation of thegluten network and improves the ovenspring of whole wheat saltine crackers (Liet al., unpublished data).In this study, different addition levelsof endoxylanases (0.01, 0.02, 0.03, and0.04%), gum arabic (0.5, 1, 2, and 3%), orvital wheat gluten (1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0%)(flour weight basis) were blended intoSWWW flour to prepare 100% wholewheat saltine crackers according to themethods described previously. The control flour was 100% SWWW flour withno added ingredients. The quality attributes of 100% whole wheat saltine crackers with these additions were determined.The stack height and specific volume ofend-products increased with increasinglevels of endoxylanases, while stackweight and breaking strength decreased(Table VII). As increasing amounts ofendoxylanases were added, cracker doughbecame much softer (decrease in resistance to extension) and more extensible(increase in extensibility), which improvedcracker oven spring during baking. Thestack height and specific volume of endproducts also increased with increasinglevels of gum arabic, while breaking
strength decreased. The stack weight ofthe end-products had no significant correlation with the level of gum arabic added (Table VII). Whole wheat crackerdough was softened by the addition ofgum arabic, which was expected toimprove the oven spring and crispy texture of the end-products.As levels of vital wheat gluten increased,stack weight, stack height, specific volume,and breaking strength of end-productsincreased (Table VII). The originalSWWW flour had limited gluten strength,resulting in breakage of the cracker doughsheet during lamination. Gluten strengthand the gluten network were enhanced byadded vital wheat gluten, resulting in thedevelopment of a gluten network in thewhole wheat cracker dough that wasstrong enough to retain gas, improve ovenspring, and entrap more bubbles. However, excessive addition of vital wheat gluten would greatly increase the toughnessof the cracker dough and restrict the puffiness of end-products.Whole Barley-Fortified Saltine CrackerPreparation and Quality ImprovementWhole barley flour (10.5% protein,11.0% moisture, and 1.25% ash) was purchased from Giusto’s Specialty FoodsCompany. The high fiber content (bothsoluble and insoluble fiber) of whole barley flour is associated with a high waterabsorption capacity. Gum arabic, guargum, and xanthan gum are hydrocolloidsthat are widely used in the baking industryto modify gluten and its hydration properties (3). Gum arabic (Pre-Hydrated GumArabic FT), pre-hydrated guar gum, andxanthan gum (Ticaxan Xanthan 200EC)were provided by TIC gums, Inc. Twoaddition levels (1.0 and 2.0%) of eachgum (wt/wt, cracker flour weight basis)and four levels (0, 25, 50, and 75%) ofwhole barley flour were blended. Wholebarley-fortified cracker flour blends arepresented in Table VIII. The control flourwas a whole barley-fortified blend without added gums. The formulas and procedures used to produce whole barley-fortified saltine crackers were developedaccording to the methods described forthe preparation of whole wheat saltinecrackers, except that different gum addition levels were used and slightly morewater (1–2%) was added.The stack weight, stack height, specificvolume, and breaking strength of wholebarley-fortified saltine crackers were measured according to the evaluation methods described previously (Table IX). StackCEREAL FOODS WORLD / 183
weight and breaking strength of endproducts increased and stack height andspecific volume generally decreasedas increasing amounts of whole barleyflour were added. With increasing levelsof added gum arabic, stack weight, stackheight, and specific volume of end-products increased, while breaking strengthgenerally decreased. Guar and xanthangums had a similar effect on the qualityof whole barley-fortified saltine crackers.Stack height and specific volume ofbarley-fortified saltine cracker decreasedand breaking strength increased withincreasing levels of added guar and xanthan gums. However, xanthan gum exhibited greater effects on the stack weightand breaking strength of whole barleyfortified saltine crackers than did gumarabic or guar gum, which suggests thatxanthan gum was more effective in modifying the internal structure of the endproducts.ConclusionsAlthough the whole grain saltine crackers tested in this study possessed a uniqueflavor, crispy texture, and significantnutritional and health benefits, some difficulties were experienced during produc-tion due to the high water-absorptioncapacity and limited gluten strength ofthe whole grain flour used. Both the processing characteristics and end-productquality attributes, especially oven spring,were negatively influenced by the use ofwhole grain flour. However, the additionof functional ingredients can be used toimprove the quality characteristics ofwhole wheat saltine crackers.Results showed that the stack heightand specific volume of whole wheat saltine crackers were increased by the use ofendoxylanases, gum arabic, and vital wheatgluten. Because water tends to migratefrom high water-absorbing components(such as arabinoxylans or -glucan) togluten in the presence of endoxylanases,gum arabic, and vital wheat gluten, greater gluten network formation is achievedin whole grain dough when these ingredients are added, and the oven spring ofwhole grain saltine crackers is improved.For the whole barley-fortified saltinecrackers, three types of gums (gum arabic,guar gum, and xanthan gum) were compared for their impact on end-productquality. Results showed that gum arabicwas more effective than guar or xanthangum for improving the stack height andspecific volume of whole barley-fortifiedsaltine crackers.AcknowledgmentsWe thank TIC Gums, Inc. for supplying thegum samples, Novozymes Company for providing the endoxylanases, and MGP Ingredients, Inc. for providing the vital wheat gluten.References1. AACC International. Method 08-01,Ash—Basic Method; Method 38-12, WetGluten and Gluten Index; Method 44-15,Moisture; Method 46-30, Protein; Method76-33, Starch Damage. Approved Methodsof Analysis, 11th ed. Published online athttp://methods.aaccnet.org. AACC International, St. Paul, MN.2. Bamforth, C. W. Barley -glucans: Theirrole in malting and brewing. Brew. Dig.57:22, 1982.3. Bárcenas, M. E., De la O-Keller, J., andRosell, C. M. Influence of different hydrocolloids on major wheat dough components (gluten and starch). J. Food Eng.94:241, 2009.4. Courtin, C. M., and Delcour, J. A. Arabinoxylans and endoxylanases in wheat flourbread-making. J. Cereal Sci. 35:225, 2002.5. Grootaert, C., Delcour, J. A., Courtin, C.M., Broekaert, W. F., Verstraete, W., andVan de Wiele, T. Microbial metabolismAn ad appeared here in the print version of the journal.184 / JULY–AUGUST 2013, VOL. 58, NO. 4
6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.and prebiotic potency of arabinoxylanoligosaccharides in the human intestine.Trends Food Sci. Technol. 18:64, 2007.Kalin, F. Wheat gluten applications in foodproducts. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 56:477,1979.Kweon, M., Slade, L., and Levine, H. Development of a benchtop baking method forchemically leavened crackers. II. Validationof the method. Cereal Chem. 88:25, 2011.Li, J., Kang, J., Wang, L., Li, Z., Wang, R.,Chen, Z. X., and Hou, G. G. Effect of watermigration between arabinoxylans andgluten on baking quality of whole wheatbread detected by magnetic resonanceimaging (MRI). J. Agric. Food Chem.60:6507, 2012.Liu, R. H. Whole grain phytochemicalsand health. J. Cereal Sci. 46:207, 2007.Marquart, L., Slavin, J. L., and Fulcher, R.G., eds. Whole-Grain Foods in Health andDisease. AACC International, St. Paul,MN, 2002.Moore, T., and Strouts, B. Basic crackertechnology. Ι. Ingredients and formulation. AIB Int. Tech. Bull. 4:1, 2008.Moore, T., and Strouts, B. Basic crackertechnology. II. Processing. AIB Int. Tech.Bull. 6:1, 2008.Pizzinatto, A., and Hoseney, R. C. Rheological changes in cracker sponge duringfermentation. Cereal Chem. 57:185, 1980.14. Pizzinatto, A., and Hoseney, R. C. A laboratory method for saltine crackers. CerealChem. 57:249, 1980.15. Rogers, D. E., and Hoseney, R. C. Test todetermine the optimum water absorptionfor saltine cracker doughs. Cereal Chem.64:370, 1987.16. Slavin, J. Whole grains and human health.Nutr. Res. Rev. 17:1, 2004.17. Thevenet, F. Acacia gum (gum arabic).Page 11 in: Food Stabilisers, Thickenersand Gelling Agents. A. Imeson, ed. WileyBlackwell, West Sussex, U.K., 2010.18. U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S.Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans,2010, 7th ed. Published online at www.cnpp.usda.gov/dgas2010-policydocument.htm. U.S. Government Printing Office,Washington, DC, 2010.19. Wang, L., Behr, S. R., Newman, R. K., andNewman, C. W. Comparative cholesterollowering effects of barley -glucan andbarley oil in golden Syrian hamsters. Nutr.Res. 17:77, 1997.20. Wood, P. J., and Beer, M. U. Functional oatproducts. Page 1 in: Functional Foods—Biochemical and Processing Aspects. G.Mazza, ed. Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, PA, 1998.Juan Li is a Ph.D. candidate at the National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi,China. Her major is in food science, with research in the area of cerealchemistry and engineering. Her Ph.D. research program focuses onthe development of whole grain products and quality improvement.In 2012, Juan completed a research project on the development ofwhole grain saltine crackers as a visiting scholar at the Wheat Marketing Center, Portland, OR. Juan is a member of AACC International andcan be reached at lijuanjuan2010@gmail.com.Gary G. Hou is the technical director and wheat foods specialist atthe Wheat Marketing Center, Portland, OR. He has been very activein conducting numerous research projects on wheat-based foodsand ingredient functionality. One of Gary’s current research areas isthe development of whole grain products, including Asian noodles,breads, crackers, pastas, and steamed breads. He also conductsa number of technical training courses on Asian noodles, artisanbreads, biscuits and crackers, frozen dough technology, flat breadsand flour tortillas, whole grain products, etc. Gary is a professionalmember of AACC International and the Institute of Food Technologists. He can be reached at ghou@wmcinc.org.Zhengxing Chen is a professor, Ph.D. student supervisor, andexecutive deputy director of the National Engineering Laboratoryfor Cereal Fermentation Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China. In recent years, Zhengxing and his group have engaged inresearch on deep processing of grains, development of cerealproducts, and comprehensive utilization of grains, cereal chemistry, and functional ingredients. Zhengxing can be reached atzxchen2007@126.com.CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 185View publication stats
specially designed wire mesh belt (CB5 Baking Band, Ashworth) on a rectangu-lar-shaped rack that was preheated in a deck oven (PICCOLOI-3, Wachtel Com-pany) for 30 min. The top-level baking temperature was 220 C, and the bottom-level baking temperature was 215 C. The baking time was
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