Plant GuideGIANT CANEArundinaria gigantea Muhl.Plant Symbol ARGIContributed by: USDA NRCS National Plants DataTeam, Greensboro, NChunting squirrels, rabbits, and various birds(Bushnell 1909; Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Speck1941; Kniffen et al. 1987). Young Cherokee boysused giant cane blowguns armed with darts toprotect ripening cornfields from scavenging birdsand small mammals (Fogelson 2004). The Choctawused the butt end of a cane, where the outside skinwas thick, as a knife to cut meat, or as a weapon(Swanton 1931). Tribes of Louisiana made flutes,duck calls, and whistles out of cane (Kniffen et al.1987). Cane is best harvested in the fall or winter(October to February) for blow guns and flutes, andplant stems, known as culms, are selected frommature, hardened off plants with larger diameters.Figure 2. Stand of giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea). Phototaken on tribal lands of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians,taken by Timothy Oakes, 2011.Figure 1. Giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea). Photo taken ontribal lands of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, taken byTim Oakes, 2011.Alternate NamesCane, Fishing-pole Cane, Mutton Grass, Rivercane,Swampcane, Switchcane, Wild BambooUsesCultural: Dense stands of cane, known ascanebrakes, have been likened to a “supermarket”offering material for many purposes (Figure 2)(Kniffen et al. 1987). Cane provided the Cherokeewith material for fuel and candles and the coarse,hollow stems were made into hair ornaments, gamesticks, musical instruments, toys, weapons, and tools(Hill 1997; Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975). TheHouma, Koasati, Cherokee, Chitimacha, Chickasaw,Choctaw, and Seminole made the stems into arrowshafts, blowguns (Figure 3) and darts (Figure 4) forFigure 3. A Choctaw man demonstrating how a blowgun ispositioned for shooting. The blowgun is about 7 feet in length andmade of a single piece of giant cane. Photo by David I. Bushnell,Jr., 1909. Courtesy of the Smithsonian National Museum ofNatural History, National Anthropological Archives.
One of the most important uses of giant cane stemstoday and in ancient times is for forming the richnatural yellow color in the baskets of the AlabamaCoushatta, Biloxi-Tunica, Caddo, Cherokee,Chitimacha, Choctaw, Creek, Koasati, Seminole andother tribes (Figures 5 and 6) (Brain et al. 2004;Bushnell 1909; Gettys 1979; Gregory Jr. 2004;Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Swanton 1942).Figure 4. Chitimacha blowgun darts of fire-treated split cane.Courtesy of the Department of Anthropology, SmithsonianInstitution E76807.Young shoots were cooked as a potherb and ripeseeds were gathered in the summer or fall andground into flour for food (Morton 1963; Hitchcockand Chase 1951). Flint (1828) says of a subspeciesof giant cane, Arundinaria gigantea ssp.macrosperma: “It produces an abundant crop ofseed with heads like those of broom corn. The seedsare farinaceous and are said to be not much inferiorto wheat, for which the Indians and occasionally thefirst settlers substituted it.” Giant cane also hasmedicinal properties. Both the Houma and theSeminole made a decoction of the roots: the Houmaused it to stimulate the kidneys and renew strength,and the Seminole used it as a cathartic (Speck 1941;Sturtevant 1955 cited in Moerman 1998).Cane was important for construction of indigenousdwellings, as well as the creation of the mats andbaskets that formed a large part of householdfurnishings (Galloway and Kidwell 2004). Entirecanes were used for Choctaw beds, house roofs, andwalls and they made pallets of whole canes onwhich to spread hides (Swanton 1931). TheCherokee constructed dwellings with cane webbing,plastered with mud (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975).The Pascagoula and the Biloxi made temples ofcane as a resting place for their chiefs and theChoctaw placed their dead in giant cane hampers(Brain et al. 2004; Swanton 1931). Woven mats ofcane covered ceremonial grounds, seats, floors, andwalls, and roofs were thatched with it (Hill 1997;Swanton 1946). The Natchez made cane mats withred and black designs, that were 4 ft. wide and 6 ft.long (Swanton 1946). The houses of Seminolechiefs were covered with checkered mats of canesdyed different colors (Bartram 1996). The Houma,Biloxi, Chitimacha, Tunica, and Koasati used canefor the making of rafts, bedding, roofing, and floorand wall coverings (Kniffen et al. 1987).Archeological excavations have revealed that giantcane was laid down in criss-crossed layers to mantlethe sloping sides of the bases of certain moundssuch as the Great Mound in east central Louisiana(Neuman 2006).Figure 5. Haylaema, Choctaw, with a carrying basket made ofgiant cane. Photograph by David I. Bushnell, Jr., St. TammanyParish, La., 1909. Courtesy of the Smithsonian National Museumof Natural History, National Anthropological Archives,1102.b.22.Pack, berry, sifting, chafing, winnowing, catch,storage, gift, and cooking baskets all carry stems ofthis grass (Duggan and Riggs 1991; Gettys 1979;2003). Venison, buffalo meat, pumpkins, hominyand boiled beans were presented in serving vesselsmade of giant cane. Choctaw mothers lay theirchildren in cradles of cane (Swanton 1946).Cherokee fish traps were made of giant cane(Leftwich 1970). As non-Indians began to settle inthe Southeastern United States, weavers fromvarious tribes began to trade their baskets with thenew settlers for items that they needed such as flour,coffee, sugar, ribbons, and fabric. Thus, canebasketry became part of the exchange-basedcolonial economy (Duggan and Riggs 1991; Lee2002; 2006). Matting and basketry technologies thatuse giant cane have been found in archaeologicalsites in Louisiana dating back to at least 2300 B.C.(Neuman 2006).
Figure 6. Zula Chitto, Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians,weaving a basket of giant cane. Photo by Bradley Isaac, Jr.,Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians.Giant cane was broken or cut to its base with a shellor bone knife or other lithic devices, and in latertimes other tools such as a sugar cane knife wereused. Today pruning shears are frequentlyemployed (Neuman 2006; Hill 1997; 2002). TheJena Band of Choctaw look for culms at least fourfeet long, of a solid color, and at least five to sevenyears old (Lee 2002). The Eastern Band of Cherokeeselect large canes about the size of the thumb thatare at least two years old (Leftwich 1970).Chitimacha weavers select giant cane with longlengths between the joints (Darden et al. 2006;NRCS 2002; 2004).In Choctaw basketry it was customary to collectcanes in the winter, because they were too brittle inthe summer (Swanton 1931). Today giant cane isharvested in every season, but fall, winter, and earlyspring are the preferred times for many weaversbecause the cane is firm, but not too hard or too soft.The cane is cut while still green, and the smallfoliage end is cut off and discarded. The cane is thenwashed in non-chlorinated water, and divided intofour or eight strips of approximately equal size(Figure 7).Figure 7. Dorothy Chapman, Mississippi Band of ChoctawIndians, splitting giant cane into strips of approximately equalsize for a basket she will make. Photo by Bradley Isaac, Jr.,Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians.Sarah H. Hill (1997) describes the next step ofpreparation—the thinning of the strands: “ theweaver repeatedly inserts the knife under the cane’souter cortex and then pulls the core back as sheguides the cut with her knife. She works down thelength of the stick, detaching the interior core untilonly the exterior of the cane remains as a thin,pliable split.” After the coarse inner fiber of the caneis scraped and discarded, the cane splints are thentrimmed along each edge to make them of uniformwidth (Leftwich 1970). The materials must be keptdamp or are re-dampened during the weavingprocess. If not used, the strips are bundled forstorage (Kniffen et al. 1987). Historically, if storedwithout splitting the culms first, the Choctaw keptthem in stacks covered an inch or two in water(Swanton 1931).Many kinds of plants were, and continue to be, usedto dye giant cane black, red, or yellow. TheChoctaw burned equal parts of the bark of the Texasred oak (Quercus texana) and water tupelo (Nyssaaquatica) to a fine ash which formed the red color intheir basketry (Bushnell 1909). The Cherokee dyethe grass with natural dyes such as black walnut(Juglans nigra) root to obtain a black or deep brownand bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) to obtain areddish color and these materials formed designs in
baskets (Speck 1920). The Jena Band of Choctawuse the berries of elderberry (Sambucus spp.) to dyethe cane red and the green husks of hickory nuts orwalnuts to make a black dye. The Chitimacha usecurly dock (Rumex crispus) and black walnut to dyetheir cane baskets (Kniffen et al. 1987).Early non-Indian settlers valued the canebrakes asnatural pastures for their domesticated animals(Hughes 1951). According to environmentalhistorian Mart Stewart (2007), “Modern studieshave established that cane foliage was the highestyielding native pasture in the South. It has up toeighteen percent crude protein and is rich inminerals essential for livestock health.” Livestockeagerly eat the young plants, leaves, and seeds andstands decline with overgrazing and rooting by hogs(Hitchcock and Chase 1951).Giant cane was sometimes slit and made into chairbottoms, weavers’ shuttles, and the hollow stems forinexpensive tubes (Porcher 1991). Non-Indiansettlers also used the giant cane for fishing poles,weaving looms, scaffolds for drying cotton, pipestems and pipes, splints for baskets and mats, toys,turkey-calls, and musical instruments (Marsh 1977).Giant cane is an excellent plant to stabilize streamand river banks. The roots and rhizomes linktogether to create an underground mesh that ties thesoil and plant to the ground. The flexible culmsbend in high water and resist breakage, but also actto seine floating organic matter out of the floodwaters causing it to drop within the brake. It is beingincluded in riparian buffer designs, serving as aneffective plant for erosion control. Giant cane is alsoproving to be an effective intercept filter ofsediment, pesticides, and nutrients flowing fromagricultural watersheds which improves waterquality (Schoonover et al. 2010).Wildlife: Canebrakes are an important ecosystem forwildlife. Historical accounts along with recentsurveys identify at least 23 mammal species, 16 birdspecies, four reptile species and seven invertebratesthat occur within canebrakes (Platt et al. 2001). Arare neotropical migrant, the Swainson’s warbler(Limnothlypis swainsonii) builds its nests in densecane thickets (Benson et al. 2009; Thomas et al.1996). The copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix),cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus), andcanebrake rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus), anendangered species, live and hunt in canebrakes.The swamp rabbit (Sylvilagus aquaticus) isrestricted to canebrakes along the northern border ofits geographic range. White-tailed deer (Odocoileusvirginianus) graze on tender cane shoots in earlyspring (Silberhorn 1996).Six species of butterflies are obligate bamboospecialists, including the Creole pearly eye (Enodiacreola), southern pearly eye (E. portlandia),Southern swamp skipper (Poanes yehl), cobweblittle skipper (Amblyscirtes aesculapius), cane littleskipper (A. reversa), and yellow little skipper (A.carolina) (Scott 1986 cited in Brantley and Platt2001). Canebrakes provide refuge and livingquarters for black bears (Ursus americanus),bobcats (Lynx rufus), and cougars (Puma concolor).Squirrels (Sciurus spp.) and wild turkeys (Meleagrisgallopavo) feed on the seeds of giant cane andCarolina parakeets (Conuropsis carolinensis) andpassenger pigeons (Ectopistes migratorius), bothnow extinct, used to feed on them (Platt andBrantley 1997).StatusPlease consult t Please consult the PLANTS Website and your State Department of Natural Resourcesfor this plant’s current status (e.g., threatened orendangered species, state noxious status, andwetland indicator values).WeedinessThis plant may become weedy or invasive in someregions or habitats and may displace desirablevegetation if not properly managed. Please consultwith your local NRCS Field Office, CooperativeExtension Service office, state natural resource, orstate agriculture department regarding its status anduse. Weed information is also available from thePLANTS Web site at http://plants.usda.gov/. Pleaseconsult the Related Web Sites on the Plant Profilefor this species for further information.DescriptionGeneral: A cool-season member of the grass family(Poaceae), giant cane comes from the genusArundinaria and is the only bamboo native to theUnited States. It has erect, perennial woody stems orculms that are two cm thick that reach up to 10 mand a diagnostic character for this genus is thepresence of culm sheaths at each node of the culm(Brantley and Platt 2001; Hitchcock and Chase1951; Hughes 1951).In parts of Alabama, historical accounts report canegrowing “as high as a man on horse-back couldreach with an umbrella” (Harper 1928 cited inMarsh 1977). The culm leaves are deciduous.Foliage leaves are evergreen, eight-15 cm long, andstrongly cross veined (Clark and Triplett 2007). Theinflorescence is a raceme or panicle that dies afterfruiting or sometimes after two consecutive growingseasons (Crow and Hellquist 2000; Platt et al. 2004).In many populations the plants seldom flower,usually only every 10 to 15 years (Silberhorn 1996).Giant cane may be monocarpic, meaning that afterdecades of vegetative growth, it flowers once andthen dies (Gagnon 2009). It has running, horizontalrhizomes that are long and slender and sometimes
hollow-centered (Marsh 1977; Clark and Triplett2007).Distribution: The grass occurs from Florida toeastern Texas in the south, in parts of the Midwest,and north to New York (Figure 8). It is found in atleast 22 states in the United States (Marsh 1977).Figure 8. Giant cane distribution in North America, PLANTSDatabase.For current distribution, please consult the PlantProfile page for this species on the PLANTS Website.Habitat: Giant cane is found from sea level on thecoastal plain and inland up to 670 m elevation in theAppalachian Mountains and on soil types rangingfrom sandy to highly acidic (Farrelly 1984; Platt andBrantley 1997). It grows best in loose, well-drainedalluvium (Marsh 1977). Recent research hasindicated physiological differences between giantcane and switchcane (A. gigantea ssp. tecta) withrespect to their ability to tolerate flooding. Giantcane is adapted to the well-drained soils of the firstnatural levees along a river course, while switchcaneis tolerant of longer periods of inundation (Mills etal. 2011).Cane has broad ecologic amplitude and is found inthe understory of many kinds of habitats includingloess bluffs, sandy bluff lands, sandy hillsides androck cliffs, loblolly-shortleaf pine forests, uplandhardwood forests, oak-hickory forests, beechmagnolia forests, blackgum and white-cedar swampforests, and bottomland hardwood forests (Taylor2006; Marsh 1977; Platt and Brantley 1997). It oncegrew luxuriantly throughout the upper country ofSouth Carolina and Georgia, but in 1863 FrancisPorcher, a medical doctor, reported that the plants“have been almost entirely consumed by animals”(Porcher 1991). It used to extend also in large areasin mono-dominant canebrakes in alluvial floodplainsalong rivers and creeks such as the Arkansas, St.Francis, Ozark, Grand, Verdigris, Illinois, Red,Wabash, Ocmulgee, Oauchita, Jacks Fork,Mississippi, Ohio, Tuckasegee, White, James, andCumberland rivers (Gagnon 2006;2009). Todaygiant cane grows diffusely in the understory offorests, in the light of forest gaps, and along riversand creeks, but the vast canebrakes are for the mostpart gone (Gagnon and Platt 2008a). Canebrakeshave been reduced to less than 2 percent of theirformer area and they are considered a criticallyendangered ecosystem in the Southeastern UnitedStates (Noss et al. 1995).AdaptationCanebrakes need some kind of disturbance tomaintain them (Meanley 1966). Giant cane is fireadapted, sprouting rapidly from rhizomes (Taylor2006). If only aerial portions are killed by fire orbroken, new culms arise from the underground partof the old culms (Hughes 1951 cited in Marsh1977). Canebrake vegetation is adapted toanthropogenic disturbance regimes in the form ofindigenous burning and natural disturbance regimesin the form of riverine flooding, lightning fires,overstory deadening by roosting flocks of passengerpigeons in former times, and windstorms (Brantleyand Platt 2001). Cane develops well with periodicflooding, but does not tolerate permanent saturation(Marsh 1977). In the past, fire maintained openArundinaria-Ilex bog areas in the Southeast, keepingbeech-maple forest from encroaching (Marsh 1977).EstablishmentBecause giant cane seldom flowers, a source of seedis unpredictable. Giant cane also has naturally lowseed viability and flowering stands can fail toproduce seeds, limiting the availability of viableseeds for seedling production (Neal et al. 2011).Attempts to reestablish canebrakes using vegetativepropagation techniques have had limited success(Cirtain 2003). In one study, Gagnon and Platt(2008b) found that giant cane seed survival andseedling establishment is improved with controllingseed-predators and herbivores, and planting seedsdirectly in a layer of leaf litter in moderate shade.Seed should be planted on several sites with a rangeof environmental conditions with multiple geneticindividuals that flower in-phase (Gagnon and Platt2008b). Another method is to grow seedlings in agreenhouse and outplant them after one year(Gagnon and Platt 2008b). Nodal sections of giantcane containing an axillary bud can be used asexplants material.Giant cane can also be transplanted during the latefall to early spring. Recent transplanting work inAlabama and Mississippi indicates that winterplanting (December-March) will give the greatestsuccess in establishment (Hamlington et al. 2011).
Plants at least one foot high, and with two feet longrhizomes and roots attached, can be dug andtransplanted into a well-drained, fertile soil, three tosix inches deep. However, water must be availablefor these transplants. If regular irrigation is notavailable, transplanting must be done in the wintermonths (December through the first weeks ofMarch).The soil should have a pH level of 6.8 to 7.2and sandy soils and areas that have peat tend toproduce larger varieties of cane (Oakes 2006).Basketry traditions are being passed down to theyouth, as part of cultural revitalization (Figure 9).Giant cane should have at least three to four hoursof direct sunlight daily. Full sun exposure seems tolimit top growth, but strongly enhances rhizome androot growth, allowing maximum overall growth ofthe canebrake (Neal et al. 2011; Russell et al. 2011).If planting giant cane on the grounds surroundingthe home, keep the plants moist during the first year,but not waterlogged. After one year ofestablishment, apply fertilizer that contains nitrogen,phosphorous and potassium (NPK), and every otheryear, any type of composted manure (chicken,horse, and cow) can be substituted (Oakes 2006).Manure can be applied in late fall or early winter(Oakes 2006).Currently researchers are investigating methods ofvegetative propagation in order to increase thesupply of plant materials for restoration projects.M.C. Mills (2011) found that planting giant caneamongst established, clump-forming grasses such asbig bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and Indiangrass(Sorgastrum nutans), may provide someenvironmental facilitation, while reducing directcompetition because of the differing growthstrategies. Paul R. Gagnon (2009) imploresmanagers to consider fire-maintained plantassemblages within bottomland hardwood forests aspart of restoration plans. Dr. Brian Baldwin (2009)at Mississippi State University has, in collaborationwith EPA Region 4, NRCS-AWCC and theMississippi Band of Choctaw Indians (MBCI),developed propagation techniques and reestablished cane in the Pearl River watershed onland belonging to the Mississippi Choctaw (Jolley etal. 2009).Not only the MBCI but also other tribes have putmuch effort into restoring cane stands so that theycan continue their traditions (Oakes 2006). Cane hasbeen re-established on the Chitimacha Reservationin Louisiana and at Kituwha, North Carolina withthe Eastern Band of Cherokee (NRCS 2002; 2004).Due to limited access to favorable habitat on triballands, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians isworking closely with local conservation groups andland managers to preserve and expand existing cane,establish new canebrakes, and secure access forCherokee artists (D. Cozzo, pers. comm. 2011).Figure 9. High school student Jorree Wolfe, Eastern Band ofCherokee Indians, making a basket of giant cane. Photo by BethRoss Johnson.ManagementHarvesting giant cane judiciously can be good forthe plant as Sarah H. Hill (1997) explains among theSoutheastern Cherokee: “Cutting cane alsostimulated its regeneration by creating openings forthe spread of new stems. Selective cutting of stalksfor baskets is an effective way to prune stands.”Native Americans burned cane once every seven to10 years (Campbell 1985; Hill 1997; Platt andBrantley 1997). Writing about the prairies in southcentral Arkansas, geologist Featherstonhaugh (1844)recorded the burning of the cane and high grass bythe Indians to secure their game. Ecologists haveconcluded that fire will maintain and even expandcanebrakes if occurring once every 10 years(DeVivo 1991; Shepherd et al. 1951, Hughes 1957).Fires set in fall, winter, or spring may improveconditions for cane and with fire exclusion, canecolonies lose vigor and are gradually replaced bywoody vegetation (Hughes 1957; Platt and Brantley1997). Paul R. Gagnon and William J. Platt (2008a)hypothesize that multiple disturbances that includefire and windstorms or other space-openingdisturbances promote monotypic-stand formation in
giant cane and fire spurs clonal growth in giantcane’s mature phase.As early as 1913, anthropologist Frank G. Speckrecorded among the Cherokee weavers in the GreatSmoky Mountains of western North Carolina thatthe giant cane was getting scarcer (Speck 1920). In1979, Libby Jo Devine (1979) completed a Master’sThesis at Georgia State University and she recordedthat “a [southeastern] basketmaker will have totravel 60-100 miles for river cane, as it is becomingscarce.” Many of the floodplain forests connectedwith the river systems with canebrakes wereconverted to agricultural lands. Canebrakes alsodiminished with changes in hydrological regimeswith dams and the creation of recreationalimpoundments, and overgrazing by domesticlivestock (Brantley and Platt 2001; Thomas et al.1996). Many patches of cane have stoppedproducing due to overcrowding of hardwoods andpines and thinning the trees 50 to 75 percent willallow cane to have less competition for growth andincrease productivity (Oakes 2006).Fires, from lightning and Native Americansrejuvenated canebrakes, but after Europeansettlement these fire regimes were altered,sometimes converting giant cane to grasslands oropen savanna (Brantley and Platt 2001; Wells andWhitford 1976 cited in Platt and Brantley 1997). Inthe absence of enriching fire and flood, canebrakesreach maturity in about ten years. Stalks then beginto decline in vigor and gradually die. In contrast tothe rapid re-growth that follows disturbance,undisturbed regeneration may take as long as severaldecades (Hughes 1966).Steven Platt and Christopher Brantley (1997)suggest that the best strategy for cane restoration isto manage and expand existing cane stands througha combination of thinning the overstory, periodicburning, and possibly fertilization. Hughes (1957)also recommended controlled burning as a means torenovating decadent cane stands.ControlPlease contact your local agricultural extensionspecialist or county weed specialist to learn whatworks best in your area and how to use it safely.Always read label and safety instructions for eachcontrol method. Trade names and control measuresappear in this document only to provide specificinformation. USDA NRCS does not guarantee orwarranty the products and control methods named,and other products may be equally effective.Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (andarea of origin)This plant is available from native plant nurseries.Also check with your local NRCS Plant MaterialsCenter for possible sources of existing plantmaterials. Research conducted on canebrakes thatare flowering but not producing seed indicates thatmany canebrakes in some areas are composed ofonly one individual, or two related individuals.Giant cane is like people when it comes toproducing offspring. In order for restoration projectsusing vegetative material or seed to be successful inthe long term, restoration plants should use amixture of genotypes (cane plants/propagules fromseveral locations or watersheds) (Baldwin 2010).ReferencesBaldwin, Brian S., M. Cirtain, D.S. Horton, J.Ouellette, S. Franklin and J.E. Preece. 2009.Propagation methods for rivercane [Arundinariagigantea L. (Walter) Muhl.]. Castanea 74(3):300316.Baldwin, B., J. Wright, C. Perez, M. Kent-First, andN. Reichert. 2010 Rivercane (Arundinariagigantea) flowering, but no seed production: Apotential answer. Seventh Eastern Native GrassSymp. Knoxville, TN. Oct 5-8.Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the CherokeeIndians. Master of Science, University ofTenessee.Bartram, W. 1996. William Bartram Travels andOther Writings. Literary Classics of the UnitedStates, Inc., New York, N.Y.Benson, T.J., N.M. Anich, J.D. Brown, and J.C.Bednarz. 2009. Swainson’s warbler nest-siteselection in eastern Arkansas. The Condor11(4):694-705.Brantley, C.G. and S.G. Platt. 2001. Canebrakeconservation in the Southeastern United States.Wildlife Society Bulletin 29(4):1175-1181.Brain, J.P., G. Roth, and W.J. De Reuse. Tunica,Bioloxi, and Ofo. 2004. Pages 586-597 in:Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 14:Southeast. R.D. Fogelson Vol. ed. SmithsonianInstitution, Washington, D.C.Bushnell, D.L., Jr. 1909. The Choctaw of BayouLacomb, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana. Bureauof American Ethnology Bulletin, Number 48.Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Campbell, J.J.N. 1985. The Land of Cane andClover: Presettlement Vegetation in the So-calledBluegrass Region of Kentucky. Report from theHerbarium. University of Kentucky, Lexington.Cirtain, M.C. 2003. Restoration of Arundinariagigantea (Walter) Muhl. Canebrakes UsingMicropropagation. Master’s Thesis. University ofMemphis, Tennessee.Clark, L.G. and J.K. Triplett. 2007. Arundinaria.Pages 17-20 in: Flora of North America vol. 24.Magnoliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Poaceae,Part 1. Flora of North American EditorialCommittee. Oxford University Press, New York,N.Y.
Crow, G.E. and C.B. Hellquist. 2000. Aquatic andWetland Plants of Northeastern North America.Vol II: Angiosperms: Monocotyledons. A Revisedand Enlarge Edition of Norman C. Fassett’s AManual of Aquatic Plants. University ofWisconsin Press, Madison.Darden, J.P., S. Darden, and M.D. Brown. 2006. Inthe family tradition: a conversation withChitimacha basketmakers. Pages 29-41 in: TheWork of Tribal Hands: Southeastern Indian SplitCane Basketry. D.B. Lee and H.F. Gregory (eds.).Northwestern State University Press,Natchitoches, Louisiana.Devine, L.J. 1979. Basketry in the Southeast UnitedStates. Master’s Thesis. Art EducationDepartment. Georgia State University, Atlanta.DeVivo, J. 1991. The Indian use of fire and landclearance in the southern Appalachians. Pages306-310 in: Fire and the Environment: Ecologicaland Cultural Perspectives. S.C. Nodvin and T.A.Waldrop (eds.). U.S. Department of AgricultureForest Service Southeast For. Exp. Stn., Gen.Tech. Rep. SE-69.Duggan, B.J. and B.H. Riggs. 1991. Studies inCherokee Basketry. Occasional Paper No. 9.Frank H. McClung Museum. The University ofTennessee, Knoxville.Farrelly, D. 1984. The Book of Bamboo. SierraClub Books, San Francisco.Flint, 1828. Western States. (complete citation notavailable).Fogelson, R.D. 2004. Cherokee in the East. Pages337-353 in: Handbook of North American IndiansVol. 14: Southeast. R.D. Fogelson Vol. ed.Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Gagnon, P.R. 2006. Population Biology andDisturbance Ecology of a Native North AmericanBamboo (Arundinaria gigantea). PH.D.dissertation, Department of Biological Sciences.Louisian State University, Baton Rouge. 2009. Fire in floodplain forests in theSoutheastern USA: insights from disturbanceecology of native bamboo. Wetlands 29(2):520526.Gagnon, P.R. and W.J. Platt. 2008a. Multipledisturbances accelerate clonal growth in apotentially monodominant bamboo. Ecology89(3):612-618. 2008b. Reproductive and seedling ecologyof a semelparous native bamboo (Arundinariagigantea, Poaceae).Galloway, P. and C.S. Kidwell. 2004. Choctaw inthe East. Pages 499-519 in: Handbook of NorthAmerican Indians Vol. 14 Southeast. R.D.Fogelson (Vol. ed.). Smithsonian Institution,Washington, D.C.Gettys, M. 1979. Basketry of the Eastern UnitedStates. Self-published. 2003. Weave, Wattle & Weir: Fiber Art ofthe Native Southeast, September 7-October 19,2003. Tennessee Valley Art Center. TennesseeValley Art Association, Tuscumbia , Ala.Gregory, Jr. H.F. 2004. Survival and maintenanceamong Louisiana tribes. Pages 653-658 in:Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 14:Southeast. R.D. Fogelson Vol. ed. SmithsonianInstitution, Washington, D.C.Hamel, P.B. and M.U. Chiltoskey. 1975. CherokeePlants and their Uses—A 400 Year History.Herald Publishing, Sylva, North Carolina.Hamlington, J.A., M.D. Smith, B.S. Baldwin andC.J. Anderson. 2011. Native cane propagationand site establishment in Alabama. Natl. WildlifeSoc. Mtg. Waikoloa, HI, 5-10 Nov.Harper, R.M. 1928. Economic Botany of Alabama.Part 2: Catalogue of the Trees, Shrubs, and Vinesof Alabama with their Economic Properties andLocal Distribution. Monograph 9, Geol
Pack, berry, sifting, chafing, winnowing, catch, storage, gift, and cooking baskets all carry stems of this grass (Duggan and Riggs 1991; Gettys 1979; 2003). Venison, buffalo meat, pumpkins, hominy and boiled beans were presented in serving vessels made of giant cane. Choctaw mothers lay their children in cradles of cane (Swanton 1946).
350000247 Front wheel set GIANT TRX 2 27.5 BOOST FW MY21 350000267 Rear wheel set GIANT TRX 2 27.5 BOOST RW MY21 350000246 Front wheel set GIANT TRX 2 29 BOOST FW MY21 350000266 Rear wheel set GIANT TRX 2 29 BOOST RW MY21 350000245 Front wheel set GIANT XCR 2 29 BOOST FW MY21 350000265 Rear wheel set GIANT XCR 2 29 BOOST RW MY21
cane mulch ground up in my coffee grinder and sifted fine to represent remnant cane cuttings around loading tracks. Nothing like the real thing to model the real thing eh? Although I don't for one minute profess that my cane fields are the pinnacle of sugar cane modelli
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the sublitoral, and ghost shrimp and clams from soft bottoms. The owl limpet, Lottia gigantea, is the largest limpet in North America. It lives on exposed and semiexposed rocks and cliffs in high middle and upper littoral zones from northern Washington to central Baja Cal ifornia (Ricketts and Calvin 1939, Stimson 1973, Lindberg and Wright .
Chocolate Fever Chapter 11 Review 1. How did Mr. Cane know a cure for chocolate fever? a. He read about the cure in a book. b. He had chocolate fever as a kid. c. He was a doctor. 2. What did Mr. Cane look like? 3. What was the nickname of Alfred Cane? 4. What did Mr. Cane’s office look like? a. empty except for his desk b. fancy with leather .File Size: 251KB
“Cane Toads: An Unnatural History” and the 2010 full-length 3D follow-up, CANE TOADS: THE CONQUEST. These warty amphibians were never meant to be in Australia. CANE TOADS begins with the tale of their transport from Hawaii via their South American homeland in order to
a vulgar man, a buffoon, a baboon liberator king not fit to shine the boots (shouting, cracks emerson's cane) of president davis! (regaining his composure, coolly) your cane, sir. (hands cane to emerson and strolls away emerson (in belated recognition) Wilkes Booth!? (aggrieved, exits with broken cane) say, what about my limp?
Grade 2 ELA Standards, Clarifications and Glossary 2 GRADE 2 READING STRAND: K-12 Standards for Reading define what students should understand and be able to do by the end of each grade. Students should demonstrate their proficiency of these standards both orally and through writing. For students to be college and