NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA AN INDIGENOUS PERSPECTIVE

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A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page i 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .NATIVE NATIONS OFNORTH AMERICAAN INDIGENOUS PERSPECTIVESteve TalbotOregon State UniversityBoston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle RiverAmsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal TorontoDelhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page ii 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149Editor in Chief: Ashley DodgePublisher: Nancy RobertsEditorial Assistant: Molly WhiteMarketing Coordinator: Jessica WarrenManaging Editor: Denise ForlowProgram Manager: Mayda BoscoProject Manager: Nitin Agarwal/Aptara , Inc.Senior Operations Supervisor: Mary FischerOperations Specialist: Eileen CoralloArt Director: Jayne ConteCover Designer: Suzanne Behnke/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .Cover Artwork: Gerald Dawavendewa/Fourth World DesignDirector of Digital Media: Brian HylandDigital Media Project Management: Learning MateSolutions, Ltd./Lynn CohenDigital Media Project Manager: Tina GagliostroFull-Service Project Management and Composition:Nitin Agarwal/Aptara , Inc.Printer/Binder: Courier Corp.Cover Printer: Courier Corp.Text Font: Palatino LT StdOn the cover: A sacred eagle feather carries a circle representing the four directions with clouds holding life-giving rain. Behindthe feather are symbols of corn, birds, water and rain, dragonfly, land and culture. It is a representation that all Native cultures areinterconnected with the world and must be treated with respect and dignity.Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on page 391.Copyright 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protectedby Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system,or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) touse material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, UpperSaddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290.Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designationsappear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataTalbot, Steve.Native nations of North America : an indigenous perspective / Steve Talbot.pages cmIncludes index.ISBN-13: 978-0-13-111389-3ISBN-10: 0-13-111389-51. Indians of North America—History. 2. Indians, Treatment of—North America—History. 3. Indians of North America—Ethnic identity. 4. Indian philosophy—North America. 5. Self-determination, National—North America—History. I. Title.E77.T25 2014970.004'97—dc23201304776110987654321ISBN-13: 978-0-13-111389-3ISBN-10:0-13-111389-5

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page iii 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .This book is dedicated to the memory ofJack D. Forbes1934–2011Mentor, Colleague, FriendPhoto courtesy of Carolyn Forbes.

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A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page v 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .CONTENTSMY FRIEND JACK: REMINISCENCES BY STEVE TALBOTxvFOREWORD: AN INDIGENOUS PARADIGM BY DUANE CHAMPAGNEACKNOWLEDGMENTSxxiABOUT THE AUTHORxxiiiABOUT THE ARTIST1xxvIntroduction: The Indigenous Contribution and PerspectiveThe Native American Cultural HeritagePopulation and Language33Food Production and AgricultureMedicine45Other ContributionsHidden Heritage57America’s First Ecologists?8The Indigenous Research Paradigm11Native Studies Departments and ProgramsChapter Review2115 References1316Hidden Heritage: The Iroquois and the Evolution of DemocracyChapter Overview19Analytical and Theoretical ConceptsWho Are the Iroquois?2021Origin of the Confederacy and the Great Law of PeaceGayanashagona, the Great Binding LawIroquois Political HistoryThe Imperial Wars25The American Revolution26The Iroquois Influence DebateIroquois Culture and SocietySocial Organization35The Grand Council36The Code of Handsome LakeTheory and Analysis232428333941v2217xvii

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page vi 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149vi/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .CONTENTSThe Iroquois Today, Cultural RestorationChapter Review345 References4346Greed and Genocide: California Indians and the Gold Rush 48Chapter Overview: Depopulation as GenocideAnalytical and Theoretical ConceptsGenocideWilding505051Native California Before Europeans52Ecological and Ethnographic RegionsNorthern Ethnographic RegionCentral Ethnographic Region525354Southern Ethnographic Region54The Indian Heritage of CaliforniaThe Spanish Period (1769–1821)5455The Mexican-Indian Period (1821–46)59The Early American Period (1846–1900)The Gold DiscoveryDisease and StarvationThe “Lost” Treaties636768Indenture and Slavery70Forced Relocation and ReservationsTheory and Analysis7273Precipitous Population DeclineEnvironmental DegradationWas It Genocide?737474Wilding Theory Revisited75Struggle and RenaissanceChapter Review6061Savage Miners and the Military44980 76References81Spiritual Genocide: Lakota Sioux and the Meaning of Wounded KneeThe Context of OppressionChapter Overview8485Theory: The Doctrine of Christian NationsTeton Sioux Society and CulturePolitical OrganizationSocial OrganizationLakota Religion87878990Spiritual Power91The Sacred Pipe91The Seven Sacred Rites92Early History of the Teton Sioux96Political Relations (1806–50)96Political Relations After 1850978683

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page vii 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .CONTENTSBehind the 1890 Massacre at Wounded KneeBattle of the Greasy GrassAmericanization and Control PoliciesReservation Life101102The Ghost Dance Religious MovementSitting Bull’s Assassination103104The Killing Fields at Wounded Knee105Early Reservation Life (1880s–1936)107Economic Life107Political and Social LifeReligion108109Reservation Life After 1936110World War II and RelocationReturn to Wounded KneeThe 1973 Occupation110112115Civil War Rages On117Shoot-Out at the Jumping Bull ResidenceHealing Through SpiritualityTheory Revisited118120121Conclusion: The Meaning of Wounded KneeChapter Review599100123 References122124Relocation as Ethnic Cleansing: The Navajo-Hopi “Land Dispute”Chapter Overview128Theoretical ConsiderationsThe Navajos128129Origin and Culture131Navajo Life TodaySpiritual Life132132Social Organization135Navajo Political History136Pueblo Influences, Spanish RelationsThe Anglo-American EraEthnic Cleansing137138The Navajo Reservation (1878–1934)Sheep as a Way of LifeTribal Government139140World War II and PostwarReservation Life TodayThe Hopis141143144Early History and OriginsSocial OrganizationSpiritual Culture145145Hopi Political HistoryThe Mexican Era136146148144138126vii

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page viii 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149viiiCONTENTSAnglo-American Rule148Causes of Hopi Disputes149World War I and the DepressionIndian Reorganization Act150World War II and Postwar152Navajo-Hopi Land Dispute154Relocation150156Resistance at Big MountainConflict and LitigationTheory Revisited157158159Summary and ConclusionsChapter Review6/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .163 162References164The Birth, Death, and Resurrection of the Cherokee NationChapter Overview168Theoretical Analysis and ConceptsTraditional CultureSocial Organization171Political OrganizationSpiritual Culture172172Early Political RelationsCulture Change173174The Cherokee Diaspora175The Louisiana Purchase177Evolution of the Cherokee State179Oppression by the State of GeorgiaThe Trail of Tears181184The Hitchcock MissionIndian Territory185186Internal Conflicts186Cherokee Golden AgeThe Civil War169169188189Postwar Reconstruction190Poverty and ExploitationAfter Statehood192193Relocation and Termination195Reemergence of the Cherokee NationCherokee Nation of OklahomaEastern Band of Cherokee196United Keetoowah Band (UKB)Theory and AnalysisConclusion196196197198198Chapter Review199 Notes199 References199166

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page ix 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .CONTENTS7Criminalization of the Indian: Northwest Fishing Rights and the Case of David SohappyChapter Overview202Theory: Criminalization of the Indian203Indian-White Relations in the Pacific NorthwestThe Early Years205Indigenous Peoples207Western WashingtonOregon208210Salmon as a Way of LifeTreaties and Fish212213The 1960s Fish-Ins215The Boldt Decision216The Columbia River Basin216The Case of David SohappyDams and FishConclusion226226Postscript: The “New Salmon”227Ethnic (Indigenous) Cleansing227The Controversy228229Myths and StereotypesConclusion230231Chapter Review8218224Theory RevisitedBacklash205232 Notes232 References233Internal Colonization: Native Hawaiians and the Sovereignty MovementChapter Overview236Analytical and Theoretical ConceptsCulture and Society in Old Hawai‘iSpiritual Life236237239Economic OrganizationSocial OrganizationThe Kapu System240241242History of Conquest and DispossessionThe Discovery 242Kamehameha I243Early Economic EnterprisesDepopulation244244Liholiho and Ka‘ahumanuChristian Missionaries245245Land Dispossession: The Mˉahele 246Sugar and Ethnic SegmentationReciprocity and Annexation248247242234201ix

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page x 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149x/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .CONTENTSKing Kalˉakaua and the Bayonet ConstitutionLili‘uokalani and the Seizure of Hawai‘iThe Colonial Context252Hawai‘i Under Colonial Rule (1900–59)The Big Five249250255255Impact on Culture and TraditionsA Hawaiian Homeland256Politics and Ethnicity257Neocolonialism Under StatehoodThe Tourist IndustryPoor Quality of Life255258259259Contemporary Struggle for Hawaiian SovereigntyAssault on the Native EnvironmentThe Military OccupationThe Aloha Industry261262263Hawaiian Language RevivalThe Haole BacklashThe Akaka Bill266Theory Revisited267Conclusion264265271Self-Determination and DecolonizationModels for Sovereignty?Chapter Review9261273271271 Notes273 References274First Nations: Contemporary Indigenous Issues in CanadaTheoretical PerspectivesHistory and Status of Canada’s First Nations: A ProfileLanguage and Cultural AreasIndians275277277278280Inuit280Métis282Recent Events282The Right to Recapture Indigenous Language283The Lobster War, the Marshall Decision, and Emerging Canadian First Nations’Treaty Rights 284“We Are Sorry”: Winning Compensation for Residential School AbusesRoyal Commission on Aboriginal PeoplesSexual AbuseLouis Riel286288288Native Litigation289Métis Hunting Rights: The Powley CaseGovernance and Land RightsInternational Indigenous SovereigntyEnvironmental Issues290291291292The Innu and Cree: North Looking South292286

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page xi 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .CONTENTSThe Crees and Hydro-Quebec’s Electric DreamsMercury Contamination and FishCrees and Inuit Oppose James Bay IIThe Innu Battle: A Sulfide Mine292294295296The Pimicikamak Cree of Manitoba: Imperiled by HydropowerThe Inuit: Dioxin and Other Persistent Organic PollutantsEnvironmental Toxicity in the ArcticPOPs, PCBs, and Dioxins298299Inuit Infants: “A Living Test Tube for Immunologists”300The Lubicon Cree: Land Rights and Resource ExploitationOil and Gas ExploitationLogging Lubicon Land302302Redress for Colonialism Revisited: Concluding ThoughtsAddendum: Idle No More10305301302The Dene: Decimated by Uranium MiningChapter Review297298304304 References306Experiment in “Red Capitalism”: Oil versus Alaska Native Land and Subsistence RightsChapter Overview310Theoretical Perspectives311The Indigenous Peoples of AlaskaEskimosUnanganIndians312313314315The 200 Billion Dollar Theft316A Demographic and Economic ProfileDiscovery in the Twentieth CenturyRussian Fur TradeWhalers317318319Reindeer HerdingGold Rush320320Other Economic ChangesTrapping316321321Early Attempts to Settle the Land QuestionTlingit-Haida Land Claims SettlementSummary322323World War II and the Early Postwar PeriodDevelopments Since World War IIStatehood325325Oil Discovery at Prudhoe BayFiling Native Land Claims325326Native Declaration of IndependenceLand Freeze322328The Oil Pipeline329Role of the State of Alaska331326323309xi

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page xii 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149xii/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .CONTENTSRelated Events at the National LevelEcology Hearings331332The Land Claims Settlement: Who Owns Alaska?Failure of the Corporate ModelThe 1991 Amendments338Does “Red Capitalism” Work?339The Threat to Native Subsistence341Global Warming and Environmental Pollution11343Subsistence Rights: The Struggle Continues344Conclusion: Theoretical Concepts Revisited347Chapter Review350333335 Note350 References350The Trouble with Stereotypes: Native Nations and the Urban TraditionChapter Overview354Analytical ConceptsAncient Urbanism355357Centers of Urbanism and Cultural DevelopmentUrbanism in MesoamericaOlmecs358Toltecs359Mayan City StatesAztecs of Mexico358359361Historical Background361Aztec Social OrganizationTenochtitlán357362363Flower Wars 364Destruction of the Aztecs364Mound Builders of Eastern North AmericaThe First Mound BuildersTemple Mound Builders364364365Contemporary Indian Urbanism in the United States and CanadaEarly Urban Indian ResearchRecent ResearchCanada367368371Urban Enclaves372Guadalupe Village372Santa Fe Indian VillagePiscataway Nation374375Political Activism, Alcatraz, and BeyondThe Indian Occupation of AlcatrazIsland AdministrationHistorical Context378378377377366353

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page xiii 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .CONTENTSThe Crucible of Activism379End of the Alcatraz OccupationAnalysis and ConclusionsAncient Urbanism386Chapter ReviewINDEX391398382385Last WordsCREDITS381381Contemporary UrbanismTheory380387 References387xiii

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A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page xv 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .MY FRIEND JACKREMINISCENCESSteve TalbotAssociation. It was at the Lab where I first met LehmanBrightman, an Indian student at UC Berkeley, who laterheaded up the United Native Americans (UNA). Jackorganized the founding meeting of UNA, andhelped Lee, myself, and others to produce the UNApublication Warpath.Jack’s daily routine at the Far West Lab oftenbegan in the morning at a nearby café where he routinely wrote fifteen to twenty manuscript pages dailyfor his various academic projects. Remarkably, hismanuscript drafts required little if any editing. Hedisplayed a broad knowledge of Indigenous peoplesworldwide. One of the tasks he assigned to me wasto undertake a comparative survey of the world’sIndigenous peoples and national education policy,thereby anticipating the founding of the NativeAmerican and Indigenous Studies Association(NAISA) several decades later in 2009.When I entered the Ph.D. program in anthropology at UC Berkeley in 1968, I continued myassociation with Jack. On the Berkeley campus hehelped the Indian students “liberate” a room wherethey could meet. One of the organizing meetingsfor the Indian student occupation of Alcatraz inNovember, 1969, took place in this room. Duringthe Third World Strike for an ethnic studies collegeat UC Berkeley, Jack met with student strike leaders to draft courses for the proposed curriculum. Heworked with Berkeley Indian students Patty (Silvas)LaPlant, LaNada (Means) Boyer, among others, tofound a Native American Studies (NAS) program onthe Berkeley campus. Lehman Brightman (LakotaCreek) became the first program coordinator.One of Jack’s Indian courses was “Native AmericanLiberation,” which I taught as a teaching associate inanthropology at UC Berkeley. The Indian students,about one-third of the class, left in the middle of the1969 Fall term to occupy Alcatraz Island. The coursecontent included Jack’s research on Alcatraz concerning the history of persecution and imprisonment ofIn February, 2011, Jack Forbes passed to the SpiritWorld, but his immense academic contribution toNative American and Indigenous Studies will remainan enduring legacy. Several Indian publicationswere quick to include tributes to him, and undoubtedly there will be more as his academic work is fullynoted and evaluated.1 In reading the initial tributes,however, I was struck by the omission of his earlycontributions to our paradigm. Jack was a majorfounder of the field of Native American Studies inCalifornia, and an important contributor to the discipline as a whole. The following reminiscences willserve to demonstrate this assertion.I was Jack’s project assistant in the multiculturalprogram at the Far West Laboratory for Educationaland Research Development from 1967 to 1969. Thisgovernment facility was located in the historicClaremont Hotel in Berkeley, California, and Jackwas one of its four directors. At the Lab, he wroteethnic handbooks, including “Native Americans inthe Far West” as a pilot project for public schools.Jack’s academic training was in history and anthropology, but he took a revisionist approach to thesedisciplines and employed ethnohistory when it cameto the subject of Native peoples. This is demonstrated in his early works, among which are Apache,Navajo, and Spaniard (1960), The Indian in America’sPast (1964), The Yumas of the Quechan Nation and TheirNeighbors (1965), Nevada Indians Speak (1967), andNative Americans of California and Nevada (1969).For a time, the national headquarters of the NationalIndian Youth Council (NIYC) was also located at theClaremont Hotel. The NIYC was an early Indian protest organization, a forerunner of the 1960s Red PowerMovement. Jack’s typist was the wife of a NIYC officer.Jack interacted with NIYC Indian leaders wheneverthey were in town. Indian elders from the San FranciscoBay area urban community also visited Jack at the Lab. Ibelieve that it was about this time that he began workingwith Dave Risling and the California Indian Educationxv

A01 TALB3893 01 SE FM.indd Page xvi 3/6/14 10:41 AM s-w-149xvi/201/PH01604/9780131113893 TALBOT/TALBOT NATIVE NATIONS OF NORTH AMERICA1 SE 9780 .MY FRIEND JACKIndian “freedom fighters” in the past. One of the students in a class report wrote: “We considered manyplans, many programs. We felt the only positive wayto create self-determination was to do it.”Jack was not directly involved in the Indianoccupation of Alcatraz, although he served on theacademic support committee, which I headed up forthe island’s Indians of All Tribes Council. He andDave Risling (Hupa) were busy leading the Indianand Chicano protest that created D-Q University, aCalifornia Indian tribal college, and the founding ofa Native American Studies program at UC Davis.Jack served as a member of my Ph.D. dissertation committee and made helpful suggestions to mydissertation, which was later published as Root

1. Indians of North America—History. 2. Indians, Treatment of—North America—History. 3. Indians of North America— Ethnic identity. 4. Indian philosophy—North America. 5. Self-determination, National—North America—History. I. Title. E77.T25 2014 970.004'97—dc23 2013047761 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-111389-3

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