The Atlas Specialty Metals Technical Handbook Of Stainless .
TheAtlas Specialty MetalsTechnical HandbookofStainless SteelsCopyright Atlas Specialty MetalsRevised : July 2003Editorial revision May 2008Atlas Specialty MetalsTechnical Services DepartmentTechnical Assistance Freecall: 1800 818 599E-mail: tech@atlasmetals.com.auwww.atlasmetals.com.au
ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless SteelsFOREWORDThis Technical Handbook has been produced as an aid to all personnel of Atlas Specialty Metals, their customers and the engineeringcommunity generally. It is intended to be both background reading for technical seminars conducted by Atlas Specialty MetalsTechnical Services Department, and also as a source of ongoing reference data.Any suggestions for improvements, additions or corrections would be very welcome; these should be directed to:Manager Technical Services,Atlas Specialty MetalsTelephone 61 3 9272 9999, E-mail tech@atlasmetals.com.auCopies of this handbook can be downloaded from the Atlas Specialty Metals web site.Details of specific products are given in the Atlas Specialty Metals “Specialty Steels, Product Reference Manual”, the series of AtlasGrade Data Sheets and in Atlas Technotes, as listed below; copies of these are available on request from any Atlas Specialty Metalsbranch, or can be viewed or downloaded from the Atlas Specialty Metals Website.Atlas Specialty Metals Technotes1.Qualitative Sorting Tests for Stainless Steels2.Pitting & Crevice Corrosion of Stainless Steels3.Stainless Steels - Properties & Equivalent Grades4.Machining of Stainless Steels5.Cleaning, Care & Maintenance of Stainless Steels6.Life Cycle Costing7.Galvanic Corrosion8."L", "H" and Standard Grades of Stainless Steels9.Stainless Steel Tube for the Food IndustryAtlas Specialty Metals Grade DatasheetsConcise datasheets, covering all the common stainless steels, include chemical composition, mechanical and physical properties,fabrication and application of each grade. Again these are available from the Atlas Specialty Metals Website.ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS TECHNICAL SERVICES DEPARTMENTAtlas Specialty Metals Technical Services Department comprises experienced metallurgists backed by our NATA-accredited mechanicaltesting laboratory.Our Materials Engineer offers a free information service, including:Steel grade selectionFabrication informationSpecial steels applicationsSpecification assistance (equivalents of foreign specifications and trade names)Metallurgical properties of steelSupply of technical literature published by Atlas Specialty Metals and other metals institutions and bodies.This assistance is provided as a free service to Atlas Specialty Metals' valued customers, and to all members of the Australianengineering community.Freecall 1800 818 599E-mail tech@atlasmetals.com.auLIMITATION OF LIABILITYThe information contained in this Handbook is not intended to be an exhaustive statement of all relevant data applicable to specialand general steel products. It has been designed as a guide for customers of Atlas Specialty Metals. No responsibility is implied oraccepted for or in conjunction with quality or standard of any product or its suitability for any purpose or use.It is the responsibility of the user to ensure product specified is fit for the purpose intended.All conditions, warranties, obligations and liabilities of any kind which are or may be implied or imposed to the contrary by anystatute, rule or regulation or under the general law and whether arising from the negligence of the Company, its servants orotherwise are hereby excluded except to the extent that the Company may be prevented by any statute, rule or regulation from doingso.Published by Atlas Specialty Metals Technical Services DepartmentCopyright Atlas Specialty Metalswww.atlasmetals.com.au
ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless SteelsTABLE OF CONTENTSFOREWORDTABLE OF CONTENTS1THE FAMILY OF MATERIALSSteel Grade Designations22GRADES & FAMILIES OF STAINLESS STEELSThe Families of Stainless SteelsCharacteristics of Stainless SteelsStandard Classifications of Stainless SteelsComparative Properties of Alloy Families44558CORROSION RESISTANCEGeneral CorrosionPitting CorrosionCrevice CorrosionStress Corrosion CrackingSulphide Stress Corrosion CrackingIntergranular CorrosionGalvanic CorrosionContact Corrosion999101010111112HIGH TEMPERATURE RESISTANCEScaling ResistanceCreep StrengthStructural StabilityEnvironmental FactorsThermal Expansion131313141414CRYOGENIC PROPERTIES15MAGNETIC PROPERTIESMagnetically Soft Stainless Steels1616MECHANICAL PROPERTIES17FABRICATION OF STAINLESS STEELSForming OperationsMachiningWeldingSoft SolderingBrazing ("Silver Soldering")191920202122HEAT TREATMENTAnnealingHardeningStress RelievingSurface Hardening2424242525SURFACE opolishingGrinding & PolishingMechanical CleaningBlackening2727272728SURFACE CONTAMINATION IN FABRICATIONContamination by Mild SteelContamination by ChloridesContamination by Carbon29292929DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN FABRICATIONGrade Selection for FabricationDesign to Avoid CorrosionSpecific Design Points30303031GUIDELINES FOR GRADE SELECTION33APPENDICES1.2.3.4.5.6.7.Steel Grade Summary - Stainless Steels.Stainless Steel Grade Comparisons specification designationsPhysical Properties of Stainless SteelsHardness Conversion Table for StainlessSteelFactors for Unit ConversionsDimensional Tolerances for BarFurther InformationPrinted referencesInternet sites.Pagewww.atlasmetals.com.au1
ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless SteelsTHE FAMILY OF MATERIALSMaterials can be divided into metals and non-metals; thehistory of civilisation has largely been categorised by theability to work metals - hence "bronze age" and "iron age"- but until quite recently most large-scale constructionwas still in non-metals, mostly stone or masonry andwood.Today a vast number of materials compete for their shareof the market, with more new materials being addedevery year. Some particularly exciting developments arenow occurring in the fields of ceramics, plastics andglasses and composites of these materials. The day of theceramic car engine is probably not all that far off - alreadythere are some high temperature components made fromthe new generation of tougher ceramics, and the modernmotor vehicle also offers many examples of the use ofengineering plastics. Recent developments in metals havere-asserted their competitive position in auto engineering,in particular the use of aluminium and magnesium alloys.A major revolution under way at present is thereplacement of much copper telecommunications cablingwith glass optical fibre. For metals to compete they mustbe able to demonstrate superior properties to theircompetitors.In a similar fashion each of the metals has to compete forits market share, based on demonstrated superiority ofproperties or economics. It is therefore worth identifyingthe various metals available and indicating just what theirmost important features are. A basic differentiation is todivide metals into "ferrous" and "non-ferrous", ie thoseiron-based and all the others.Amongst the non-ferrous metals the most important forengineering applications are the families of aluminiumalloys (with very low densities, high electrical and thermalconductivity, good formability and good corrosionresistance these find applications in aircraft, high tensionelectricity conductors, yacht masts etc) and of copperalloys (with very high electrical and thermal conductivitiesand ready formability these find their principal applicationsin electrical wiring). Other important non-ferrous alloys(an alloy is simply a mixture of two or more metals) arethe brasses and bronzes.The family of ferrous metals incorporates a vast numberof alloys. Those alloys containing a very high proportionof carbon (over about 2%) are called cast irons. Virtuallyall of the remainder are termed steels and these can befound in either cast form (produced by pouring moltenmetal into a mould of the shape of the finished part) orwrought form (cast as ingots or continuous cast billets orslabs, but then hot rolled or forged to produce bars,plates or complex shapes such as rail sections andbeams). They can also be formed to finished shape bysintering powdered metal at high temperature. Steels arecategorised by their major alloying elements (carbon,manganese, chromium, nickel and molybdenum) and bythe presence or absence of minor elements (silicon,sulphur, phosphorus, nitrogen and titanium), as shown inthe table Figure 1.TypeTypicalGradeAlloyContentTypical Usesplaincarbonsteels10200.2% Cbridges,buildingframes,machineryshaftslow alloysteels41400.4% C1.0% Cr0.2% Mohighly stressedshafts, forgedmachinecomponentsstainless& highalloysteels3040.05% C18% Cr9% Nicorrosionresistanttanks, bolts,springstoolsteelsH130.4% C1.05% Si5.2% Cr1.3% Mo1.0% Vtools forcasting andhot forgingFigure 1 Typical grades in each steel group"Micro" additions of alloys are also present in somegrades.Atlas Specialty Metals distributes product from all fourcategories (plain carbon, low alloy, stainless and toolsteels).Steel Grade DesignationsDesignation systems for metals vary widely. In the pastevery producer had their own name for each grade theyproduced - some examples were "Duraflex" (BHP's namefor 1045) and "Sixix" (Atlas Steels Canada's name for M2high speed steel).Thankfully this practice is now reducing, with benefits toall users. In some instances there is justification for theuse of a specific trade name, for instance where amanufacturer has made a grade significantly differentfrom other similar products. This is particularlyappropriate in new product areas such as duplex stainlesssteels, where national standards lag behind commercialalloy development, and where grades are still evolving.Some producers, however, cling to the use of tradenames for quite standard grades in the hope ofgenerating sales on the basis of perceived rather thanactual product superiority.Apart from trade designations a variety of naming systemsexist, supported by one or other standards body. InAustralia metals designations tend to more or less followthose of the USA - principally the American Iron and SteelInstitute (AISI) and American Society for Testing andMaterials (ASTM). These bodies many years agodeveloped three-digit designations for stainless steels,Pagewww.atlasmetals.com.au2
ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steelsfour-digit designations for carbon and low alloy steels andone letter plus one or two digit designations for toolsteels. All three systems have proven inadequate forcoping with an on-going series of new alloydevelopments, so a new Unified Numbering System (UNS)has been implemented by ASTM and the Society ofAutomotive Engineers (SAE). The UNS designations havebeen allocated to all metals in commercial production,throughout the world; a single letter indicates the alloyfamily (N nickel base alloys, S stainless steels, etc)and five digits denote the grade. This system is nowincorporated in most ASTM standards, and also somestandards from other countries such as Australia.encountered system is the German Werkstoff (Workshop)Number giving all steels a single digit plus four digitdesignation, eg "1.4301" for Grade 304. A secondidentifier associated with each grade is the DINdesignation, eg "X 5 CrNi 18 9" for Grade 304.Japanese grade designations are based on the AISI/ASTMdesignations as far as stainless steels are concerned, butfollow their own system for other alloy groups.Numerous cross references between grades arepublished; the most complete is the German"Stahlschlüssel" (Key to Steel). This is particularly goodfor German specifications but does cover all significantsteel specifying countries, including Australia, and liststrade names in addition to national specifications.British Standards have used a designation system for steelgrades based upon the AISI/ASTM system, but with extradigits to specify slight variants of grades, eg 316S31 is aparticular variant of Grade 316 stainless steel.European national standards are quite different, and alsodiffer among themselves. The most commonlyIn addition to these national specifications there areInternational Standards (ISO) which tend to followvarious European systems, and a newly developing set of"Euronorm" (EN) European specifications from theEuropean Union. We are now seeing these Euronormsreplacing national specifications from Britain, Germanyand other member nations.A summary of these grade equivalents (or nearalternatives) is shown in Appendix 2.Pagewww.atlasmetals.com.au3
ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless SteelsSTAINLESS STEELS - INTRODUCTION TO THE GRADES AND FAMILIESThe group of alloys which today make up the family ofstainless steels had their beginning in 1913 in Sheffield,England; Harry Brearley was trying a number of alloys aspossible gun barrel steels, and noticed that samples cutfrom one of these trial Heats did not rust and were in factdifficult to etch. When he investigated this curiousmaterial - it contained about 13% chromium - it lead tothe development of the stainless cutlery steels for whichSheffield became famous. Coincidentally developmentwork was also being carried out in France at about thesame time which culminated in the production of the firstaustenitic stainless steels.Although the consumption of stainless steels is growingvery rapidly around the world (average of 5.8% perannum in the Western world over the period 1950 to2001) average per capita consumption in Australia is verylow by comparison with other developed, and manydeveloping countries. In 1999 Australians each consumedabout 5kg, compared with about 8kg per head in France,13kg in Japan, 16kg in Germany, 26kg in Singapore and38kg in Taiwan. On average each Chinese consumedabout 1.3kg, but this figure is rapidly rising.THE FAMILIES OF STAINLESS STEELSStainless steels are iron based alloys containing aminimum of about 10.5% chromium; this forms aprotective self-healing oxide film, which is the reason whythis group of steels have their characteristic"stainlessness" or corrosion resistance. The ability of theoxide layer to heal itself means that the steel is corrosionresistant, no matter how much of the surface is removed;this is not the case when carbon or low alloy steels areprotected from corrosion by metallic coatings such as zincor cadmium or by organic coatings such as paint.Figure 2 Families of stainless steelsAdditional elements can be added such as molybdenum,titanium or copper, to modify or improve their properties,making them suitable for many critical applicationsinvolving high temperature as well as corrosion resistance.This group of steels is also suitable for cryogenicapplications because the effect of the nickel content inmaking the steel austenitic avoids the problems ofbrittleness at low temperatures, which is a characteristicof other types of steel.Although all stainless steels depend on the presence ofchromium, other alloying elements are often added toenhance their properties. The categorisation of stainlesssteels is unusual amongst metals in that it is based uponthe nature of their metallurgical structure - the terms useddenote the arrangement of the atoms which make up thegrains of the steel, and which can be observed when apolished section through a piece of the material is viewedat high magnification through a microscope. Dependingupon the exact chemical composition of the steel themicrostructure may be made up of the stable phasesaustenite or ferrite, a "duplex" mix of these two, thephase martensite created when some steels are rapidlyquenched from a high temperature, or a structurehardened by precipitated micro-constituents.The relationship between the various austenitic grades isshown in Figures 3.The relationship between the different families is asshown in Figure 2. A broad brush comparison of theproperties of the different families is given in Figure 5.Martensitic stainless steels are also based on the additionof chromium as the major alloying element but with ahigher carbon and generally lower chromium content (eg12% in Grades 410 and 416) than the ferritic types;Grade 431 has a chromium content of about 16%, but themicrostructure is still martensite despite this highchromium level because this grade also contains 2%nickel.Austenitic Stainless SteelsThis group contain at least 16% chromium and 6% nickel(the basic grade 304 is sometimes referred to as 18/8)and range through to the high alloy or "super austenitics"such as 904L and 6% molybdenum grades.Ferritic Stainless SteelsThese are plain chromium (10½ to 18%) grades such asGrade 430 and 409. Their moderate corrosion resistanceand poor fabrication properties are improved in the higheralloyed grades such as 434 and 444 and in the proprietarygrade 3CR12.The relationship between the various ferritic grades isshown in Figure 4.Martensitic Stainless SteelsThe relationship between the various martensitic grades isshown in Figure 4.Pagewww.atlasmetals.com.au4
ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless SteelsDuplex Stainless SteelsCHARACTERISTICS OF STAINLESS STEELSDuplex stainless steels such as 2205 and 2507 (thesedesignations indicate compositions of 22% chromium, 5%nickel and 25% chromium, 7% nickel but both gradescontain further minor alloying additions) havemicrostructures comprising a mixture of austenite andferrite. Duplex ferritic - austenitic steels combine some ofthe features of each class: they are resistant to stresscorrosion cracking, albeit not quite as resistant as theferritic steels; their toughness is superior to that of theferritic steels but inferior to that of the austenitic steels,and their strength is greater than that of the (annealed)austenitic steels, by a factor of about two. In addition theduplex steels have general corrosion resistances equal toor better than 304 and 316, and in general their pittingcorrosion resistances are superior to 316. They sufferreduced toughness below about -50oC and after exposureabove 300oC, so are only used between thesetemperatures.The characteristics of the broad group of stainless steelscan be viewed as compared to the more familiar plaincarbon "mild" steels. As a generalisation the stainlesssteels have: Higher work hardening rate Higher ductility Higher strength and hardness Higher hot strength Higher corrosion resistance Higher cryogenic toughness Lower magnetic response (austenitic only)The relationship between the various duplex grades isshown in Figures 3.STANDARD CLASSIFICATIONSPrecipitation Hardening Stainless SteelsThese are chromium and nickel containing steels whichcan develop very high tensile strengths. The mostcommon grade in this group is "17-4 PH"; also known asGrade 630, with the composition of 17% chromium, 4%nickel, 4% copper and 0.3% niobium. The greatadvantage of these steels is that they can be supplied inthe "solution treated" condition; in this condition the steelis just machinable. Following machining, forming etc. thesteel can be hardened by a single, fairly low temperature"ageing" heat treatment which causes no distortion of thecomponent.These properties apply particularly to the austenitic familyand to varying degrees to other grades and families.These properties have implications for the likely fields ofapplication for stainless steels, but also influence thechoice of fabrication methods and equipment.There are many different varieties of stainless steel andthe American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) in the pastdesignated some as standard compositions, resulting inthe commonly used three digit numbering system. Thisrole has now been taken over by the SAE and ASTM, whoallocate 1-letter 5-digit UNS numbers to new grades.The full range of these standard stainless steels iscontained in the Iron and Steel Society (ISS) "SteelProducts Manual for Stainless Steels", and in theSAE/ASTM handbook of Unified N
iron-based and all the others. . of carbon (over about 2%) are called cast irons. Virtually all of the remainder are termed steels and these can be found in either cast form (produced by pouring molten . ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels Page
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