Religion Sparks Reform - Matthew Caggia

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p0240-245aspe-0208s110/16/024:01 PMPage 240Page 1 of 6Religion SparksReformMAIN IDEAA renewal of religioussentiment—known as theSecond Great Awakening—inspired a host of reformmovements.Terms & NamesWHY IT MATTERS NOWMany modern social and politicalreform movements grew out ofthe reform movements of 19thcentury America. Charles GrandisonFinney Second GreatAwakening revival Ralph WaldoEmerson transcendentalism Henry DavidThoreau civil disobedience utopiancommunity Dorothea DixOne American's StoryWhen Charles Grandison Finney preached, his listenersshrieked, moaned, and fainted. The most famous preacher ofthe era, Finney inspired emotional religious faith, using aspeaking style that was as much high drama as prayer or sermon. Converted at the age of 29, Finney traveled by horseback to deliver his message. Finney seated the most likelyconverts in his audiences on a special “anxious bench,” wherehe could fasten his eyes upon them. He lectured on the depthof the conversion experience.But to those who have experienced the agony of wrestling, prevailingprayer, for the conversion of a soul, you may depend upon it, that soul . . .appears as dear as a child is to the mother who brought it forth with pain.”—Lectures on Revivals of ReligionsThe convert’s duty was to spread the word about personal salvation to others.This religious activism—or evangelism—was part of an overall era of reform thatstarted in the 1830s. Reforms of the period included women’s rights, school reform,and abolition, the movement to outlaw slavery. All of these movements emergedas responses to rapid changes in American society such as early industrial growth,increasing migration and immigration, and new means of communication.The Second Great AwakeningMuch of the impulse toward reform was rooted in the revivals of the broadreligious movement that swept the United States after 1790, known as theSecond Great Awakening. Finney and his contemporaries were participants in240CHAPTER 8 A PERSONAL VOICE CHARLES GRANDISON FINNEY“ I know this is all so much algebra to those who have never felt it.Charles GrandisonFinney

p0240-245aspe-0208s110/16/024:01 PMPage 241the Second Great Awakening. These preachers rejected the18th-century Calvinistic belief that God predeterminedone’s salvation or damnation—whether a person went toheaven or hell. Instead, they emphasized individual responsibility for seeking salvation, and they insisted that peoplecould improve themselves and society.Religious ideas current in the early 19th century promoted individualism and responsibility, similar to theemphasis of Jacksonian democracy on the power of thecommon citizen. Christian churches split over these ideas,as various denominations competed to proclaim the message of a democratic God, one who extends the possibilityof salvation to all people. The forums for their messageswere large gatherings, where some preachers could drawaudiences of 20,000 or more at outdoor camps.MAIN IDEAAnalyzingEffectsA How did theSecond GreatAwakeningrevolutionize theAmerican religioustradition?A. AnswerIt taught thatindividualresponsibilitywas the wayto salvation.Revivalism wasone effect of theSecond greatAwakening.Page 2 of 6N OWTHENMODERN REVIVALISMEvangelical Christianity reemergedin several different religious organizations in the late 20th century.One example is the ChristianCoalition, a religiously basedcitizen-action organization withalmost 2 million members.As with the Second GreatAwakening, members of thesereligious organizations often areactive in political movements thatspring from personal religious beliefs. Indeed, some of the organizations use television much likeFinney used the revival meetingto encourage believers to act ontheir faith.REVIVALISM Such a gathering was called a revival, anemotional meeting designed to awaken religious faiththrough impassioned preaching and prayer. A revival mightlast 4 or 5 days. During the day the participants studied theBible and examined their souls. In the evening they heardemotional preaching that could make them cry out, burstinto tears, or tremble with fear.Revivalism swept across the United States in the early19th century. Some of the most intense revivals took placein a part of western New York known as the burned-overdistrict because of the religious fires that frequently burnedthere. Charles Finney fanned these flames, conductingsome of his most successful revivals in Rochester, New York.The Rochester revivals earned Finney the reputation of “thefather of modern revivalism.” Revivalism had a strong impact on the public.According to one estimate, in 1800 just 1 in 15 Americans belonged to a church,but by 1850, 1 in 6 was a member. ATHE AFRICAN-AMERICAN CHURCH The Second Great Awakening also broughtChristianity on a large scale to enslaved African Americans. There was a strongdemocratic impulse in the new churches and a belief that all people—black orwhite—belonged to the same God. Thus,the camp meetings and the new Baptistor Methodist churches were open toboth blacks and whites. Slaves inthe rural South—though theywere segregated in pews of theirown—worshiped in the samechurches, heard the same sermons, and sang the same hymnsas did the slave owners. EnslavedAfrican Americans, however,interpreted the Christian message as a promise of freedom fortheir people.In the East, many free AfricanAmericans worshiped in separateblack churches, like Richard Allen’sBethel African Church in Philadelphia,which by 1816 would become the AfricanThis early-19thcentury traydepicts LemuelHaynes preachingin his VermontCongregationalChurch. Reforming American Society241

p0240-245aspe-0208s110/16/024:01 PMPage 242Page 3 of 6Methodist Episcopal Church. Allen inspired his congregation to strengthen itsfaith as well as to fight against slavery.A PERSONAL VOICE RICHARD ALLEN“ Our only design is to secure to ourselves, our rights and privileges to regulateour affairs temporal and spiritual, the same as if we were white people, and toguard against any oppression which might possibly arise from the improper prejudices or administration of any individual having the exercise of Discipline over us.”—quoted in Segregated SabbathsMembership in the African Methodist Episcopal Church grew rapidly. Itbecame a political, cultural, and social center for African Americans, providingschools and other services that whites denied them.Eventually the African-American church developed a political voice andorganized the first black national convention, held in Philadelphia in September1830. Richard Allen convened the meeting, in which participants agreed to explore the possible settlement of free AfricanHistory ThroughAmericans and fugitive slaves in Canada. Allen’s conventionwas the first of what would become an annual convention offree blacks in the North. The African-American church gave itsmembers a deep inner faith, a strong sense of community—A VIEW OF THE MOUNTAINand the spiritual support to oppose slavery. BPASS CALLED THE NOTCH OFTHE WHITE MOUNTAINS(CRAWFORD NOTCH)(1839)This painting by Thomas Cole isan example of the Hudson Riverschool. Like the transcendentalists, its painters celebrated thebeauty of the American landscape, and the truth found inpersonal emotion.What relationship betweenhumans and nature does Cole'spainting portray?Transcendentalism and ReformsMany reformed-minded individuals sought an alternative totraditional religion but found revivalism too public a forumfor religious expression.TRANSCENDENTALISM By the mid-1800s, some Americanswere taking new pride in their emerging culture. RalphWaldo Emerson, a New England writer, nurtured this pride.Emerson led a group practicing transcendentalism—aMAIN IDEASummarizingB How did theAfrican-Americanchurch support itsfollowers?B. Answer Bygiving its members a sense ofcommunity, aninner faith, andthe spiritual andpolitical supportto opposeoppression.

p0240-245aspe-0208s110/16/024:01 PMPage 243Page 4 of 6philosophical and literary movement that emphasized living a simple life and celebrated the truth found in nature and in personal emotion and imagination.Exalting the dignity of the individual, the transcendentalists spawned a literary movement that stressed American ideas of optimism, freedom, and selfreliance. Emerson’s friend Henry David Thoreau put the idea of self-relianceinto practice. Abandoning community life, he built himself a cabin on the shoreof Walden Pond near Concord, Massachusetts, where he lived alone for two years.(See Literature of the Transcendentalists, page 246.) In Walden (1854), Thoreauadvised readers to follow their inner voices.C. AnswerTranscendentalists stressedself-relianceand the abilityto be close tonature. Thoreaushowed bothqualities whenhe lived alonefor two yers atWalden Pond.MAIN IDEASynthesizingC In what waydid Thoreau’sexperience atWalden reflecttranscendentalistbeliefs?MAIN IDEAContrastingD How did theUnitarians’approach to religious experiencediffer from therevivalists’?D. AnswerThe Unitariansbelieved conversion wasachievedthrough a gradual processusing reason,rather thanthrough an emotional moment ina revival.A PERSONAL VOICE HENRY DAVID THOREAU“ I learned this, at least, by my experiment; that if one advances confidently in thedirection of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, hewill meet with a success unexpected in common hours. . . . If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost; that is where they should be. Now putthe foundations under them.”—WaldenBecause Thoreau believed in the importance of individual conscience, heurged people not to obey laws they considered unjust. Instead of protesting withviolence, they should peacefully refuse to obey those laws. This form of protest iscalled civil disobedience. For example, Thoreau did not want to support theU.S. government, which allowed slavery and fought the War with Mexico. Insteadof paying taxes that helped finance the war, Thoreau went to jail. CUNITARIANISM Rather than appealing to the emotions, Unitarians emphasizedreason and appeals to conscience as the paths to perfection. In New England,Unitarians quickly attracted a wealthy and educated following. In place of the dramatic conversions produced by the revivals, Unitarians believed conversion was agradual process. William Ellery Channing, a prominent Unitarian leader, assertedthat the purpose of Christianity was “the perfection ofhuman nature, the elevation of men into nobler beings.”ANOTHERUnitarians agreed with revivalists that individual and socialDreform were both possible and important.P E R S P EC T I V EAmericans Form IdealCommunitiesSome of the optimism of religious and social reform alsoinspired the establishment of utopian communities,experimental groups who tried to create a “utopia,” or perfect place. These communities varied in their philosophiesand living arrangements but shared common goals such asself-sufficiency. One of the best-known utopian communities was established in New Harmony, Indiana. Another wasBrook Farm, located near Boston.In 1841 transcendentalist George Ripley establishedBrook Farm to “prepare a society of liberal, intelligent andcultivated persons, whose relations with each other wouldpermit a more wholesome and simple life than can be ledamidst the pressure of our competitive institutions.” A firedestroyed the main building at Brook Farm in 1847, andthe community immediately disbanded. Most utopias lasted no more than a few years.HAWTHORNE ATBROOK FARMNew England writer NathanielHawthorne spent about sixmonths at Brook Farm in 1841.He hoped to find solitude inwhich to write, but instead spentclose to ten hours a day workingin the barns and fields. He wasforced to conclude that life therewas “unnatural and unsuitable”for him.Ten years after he left BrookFarm, Hawthorne, now considered an established author, wroteThe Blithedale Romance (1852).A fictional account of communallife based on Brook Farm, thebook suggests that striving forperfection may yield unexpectedresults.Reforming American Society243

p0240-245aspe-0208s110/16/024:01 PMPage 244Page 5 of 6The failure of the utopian communities did not lessen the zeal of the religious reformers. Many became active in humanitarian reform movements,such as the abolition of slavery and improved conditions for women.SHAKER COMMUNITIES Religious belief spurred other ideal communities. The Shakers, who followed the teachings of Ann Lee, set up their firstcommunities in New York, New England, and on the frontier. Shakersshared their goods with each other, believed that men and women areequal, and refused to fight for any reason. When a person became a Shaker,he or she vowed not to marry or have children. Shakers depended on converts and adopting children to keep their communities going. In the 1840s,the Shakers had 6,000 members—their highest number. In 1999, only aboutseven Shakers remained in the entire United States.Schools and Prisons Undergo ReformBy the mid-19th century, thousands of Americans holding a variety ofphilosophical positions had joined together to fight the various social illsthat troubled the young nation. Some social reformers focused their attention on schools and other institutions. These fine ovalwooden boxeswere made in theShaker village inCanterbury, NewHampshire. Theywere used forstoring smallitems.REFORMING ASYLUMS AND PRISONS In 1831, French writer Alexis deTocqueville had visited the United States to study its penitentiary system.Observing prisoners who were physically punished or isolated for extendedperiods, de Tocqueville concluded that “While society in the United States givesthe example of the most extended liberty, the prisons of the same country offerthe spectacle of the most complete despotism [rigid and severe control].”Reformers quickly took up the cause.Dorothea Dix was compelled by personal experience tojoin the movement for social reform. On visiting aMassachusetts house of correction, Dix was horrified todiscover that jails often housed mentally ill people.A PERSONAL VOICE DOROTHEA DIX“ I proceed, gentlemen, briefly to call your attention to the present state of insane persons confined within this Commonwealth. . . . Chained,naked, beaten with rods, and lashed into obedience! . . . Injustice is also done to the convicts: itis certainly very wrong that they should be doomedday after day and night after night to listen to theravings of madmen and madwomen.”—Report to the Massachusetts Legislature In 1843 she sent a report of her findings to the Massachusetts Dorothea Dixlegislature, who in turn passed a law aimed at improving conditions. (ca. 1846)Between 1845 and 1852, Dix persuaded nine Southern states to setup public hospitals for the mentally ill.Prison reformers—and Dorothea Dix in her efforts on behalf of the mentallyill—emphasized the idea of rehabilitation, treatment that might reform the sick orimprisoned person to a useful position in society. There was, as revivalists suggested, hope for everyone. EIMPROVING EDUCATION Before the mid-1800s, no uniform educational policyexisted in the United States. School conditions varied across regions. Massachussettsand Vermont were the only states before the Civil War to pass a compulsory school244CHAPTER 8E. Answer Theyemphasizedrehabilitationrather thanimprisonment.MAIN IDEAAnalyzingEffectsE How did thereformers changethe treatment ofthe mentally illand prisoners?

p0240-245aspe-0208s110/16/02F. AnswerStates began toestablish taxsupported public schools, curriculum changeswere made, andteachersreceived bettertraining.MAIN IDEASummarizingF What effortswere made toimprove educationin the 1830s?4:01 PMPage 245Page 6 of 6attendance law. Classrooms in the early schools were notdivided by grade, so younger and older pupils were throwntogether. Few children continued in school beyond the ageof ten.In the 1830s, Americans increasingly began to demandtax-supported public schools. For example, in 1834Pennsylvania established a tax-supported public school system. Although the system was optional, a storm of oppositionerupted from well-to-do taxpayers. They saw no reason to support schools that their children, who were mostly enrolled inprivate schools, would not attend. Opposition also came fromsome German immigrants who feared that their childrenwould forget the German language and culture. Within threeyears, however, about 42 percent of the elementary-schoolage children in Pennsylvania were attending public schools.One remarkable leader in the public school reformmovement was Horace Mann of Massachusetts. After achildhood spent partly at work and partly in poor schools,Mann declared, “If we do not prepare children to becomegood citizens, . . . if we do not enrich their minds withknowledge, then our republic must go down to destruction,as others have gone before it.” In 1837 he became the firstsecretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. In 12years of service, Mann established teacher-training programs and instituted curriculum reforms. He also doubledthe money that the state spent on schools.Other states soon followed Massachusetts’s andPennsylvania’s good example. By the 1850s every state hadprovided some form of publicly funded elementary schools.In states in the far West and in Southern states, however, ittook years before public schools were firmly established. FHISTORICALS P O TLIG H TMCGUFFEY’S READERSIf you attended school during themid-to late-1800s, you probablywould have used a McGuffey’sreader. William H. McGuffey, ateacher and preacher in Ohio, firstpublished his popular grade-schoolreading books in the 1830s.The readers, which had soldmore than 60 million copies by1879, taught reading, writing,and arithmetic, as well as thedemocratic cultural values ofhard work, honesty, and love ofcountry. They also contained littlemoral lessons to live by, such as“Idleness is the nest in whichmischief lays its eggs.”1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Charles Grandison Finney Second Great Awakening revival Ralph Waldo Emerson transcendentalism Henry David Thoreau civil disobedienceMAIN IDEACRITICAL THINKING2. TAKING NOTESIn a web similar to the one shown,fill in events and ideas that relate tothe Second Great Awakening.3. SYNTHESIZINGConsider the philosophical andreligious ideas expressed during theSecond Great Awakening and otherreligious reform movements. Whatwere the key values and beliefs thatguided 19th-century reformers’actions? Think About: concepts of individualism andindividual salvation attitudes toward social responsibility the viewpoints of Finney,Channing, and EmersonSecond GreatAwakeningindividualresponsibilitiesWhy did revivalism catch hold in theearly 19th century? utopian community Dorothea Dix4. ANALYZING ISSUESHow do you think the 19th-centuryreform movements in schools,prisons, and asylums might haveinfluenced reform movements today?5. COMPARINGWhy might the idea of utopiancommunities appeal to thetranscendentalists?Reforming American Society245

Many modern social and political . inner faith, and the spiritual and political support to oppose oppression. p0240-245aspe-0208s1 10/16/02 4:01 PM Page 242. philosophical and literary movement that emphasized living a simple life and cel-ebrated the truth found in nature and in personal emotion and imagination.

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