Auto-Tune's Effect On Musicians, Genres, And Culture
Auto-Tune's Effect on Musicians, Genres, and CulturebyMatthew McGowanA Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Researchin partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree ofMaster of ArtsinMusic and CultureCarleton UniversityOTTAWA, OntarioMay 14, 2012 2012Matthew McGowan
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AbstractIn this thesis, I will examine the vocal effect technology Auto-Tune, a pieceof software used in modern recording studios to alter the pitch of a singer'srecorded vocal performance, or to generate a unique, overt vocal effect. WhileAuto-Tune has generally been implemented successfully within the pop musicgenre, the use of Auto-Tune within modern hip hop has resulted in a contentiousdiscourse within said genre.This thesis shall explore not only how Auto-Tune is utilized within popularmusic, but also how it impacts the way musicians record and perform music, howAuto-Tune either complements or conflicts with the aesthetic foundations andconventions of a given genre, what symbolic effect Auto-Tune has upon themusical recording it is applied to (according to a variety of theoretical notions),and what influence Auto-Tune has had upon the broader popular culture.ii
AcknowledgementsProfessionally, I would like to deeply thank Professor William Echard foragreeing to supervise my thesis. His calm, professional, and helpful characterwas of great personal reassurance and confidence to me during the course ofresearching, writing, editing, and defending my work. As well, his incredible depthof academic knowledge, as well as expertise in the technological aspect ofmusic, proved to be an indispensable resource.As well, I would like to thank Professor James Deaville for his guidanceand counsel as Graduate Supervisor over the course of my studies at CarletonUniversity. Also, thanks go out to Barbara Shannon, the Graduate Administratorof the School for Studies in Art and Culture, for being equally helpful andknowledgeable in all administrative matters.Personally, I would like to thank my wife Lindsay. Without your unwaveringand selfless love and support, I simply would not have been able to complete thisthesis. I cannot thank you enough.iii
I - Introduction 1II - Synthesis, Sampling, and Digital Signal Processing 6Moog Modular Synthesizer and Synthesis 7Digital Synthesizers, Samplers and Processors 9Digital Audio and Quantization 14Pro-Tools 16Auto-Tune 20Conclusion 25III - Auto-Tune Within Popular Music 28Pop Music 29Hip Hop 38Hip-Pop 54Conclusion 61IV - Popular Music Vocal Aesthetics and Auto-Tune 63Popular Music vs. Pop Music 64Pop Music 66Pop Music and Technology 69Old-School Hip Hop Vocal Aesthetics 76Hip-Pop Aesthetics 80Conclusion 86V - Theory 90Naomi Cumming and The Sonic Self 91Roland Barthes and The Grain of the Voice 102Jean Baudrillard and The Hyperreal 106Jonathan Sterne and Schizophonia 111iv
Conclusion 115VI - Conclusion: Auto-Tune and Popular Culture 116Television 117Internet 121Music Technology 126Popular Music 129Bibliography 134Websites 137Online Multimedia 138Discography 139v
I - IntroductionAccording to musical theory, there exist a plethora of tuning systems, suchas Just Intonation, Pythagorean Tuning, Meantone Temperament, and others.However, the Twelve Tone Equal Temperament (12-TET) tuning system hasmanaged to become the dominant standard of intonation within almost allwestern music for a variety of reasons, such as its technical ability to achieveperfectly consistent tuning between all twelve chromatic tones, to enable thecomposer to transpose freely between keys, and also because it is whatmusicians are taught, instruments are designed to play, and audiences havebecome accustomed to. As a western musical audience, we are culturallyconditioned towards a preference for particular musical tunings, such as 12-TET,and thus engrain these preferences by espousing them as the dominant,preferred tuning system amongst nearly all the genres in the western world.While the 12-TET system provides the aesthetic backbone for nearly allforms of western music, there are instances where alternative systems and/oraesthetics of intonation come into play. For example, within African-American (i.e.blues and jazz) and European folk music, the blue note - in which certain notesare sung at a slightly lower pitch relative to 12-TET is a technique used forexpressive purposes. These notes are used by musicians to create a certaintonal dissonance and tension, one which (in the case of the blues) allows themusician to evoke a certain human, emotional quality (through either themusician's instrument or the singer's voice). Bessie Smith's "Nobody Knows You1
When You Are Down and Out"1 is an apt example of a vocalist using the bluenote, possibly to elicit emotions such as loss, sorrow, regret, and resilience byphrasing the pitch of her vocals slightly lower than would be expected under 12TET. The blue note is a prime example of a non-12-TET tuning aesthetic havingbeen imported into a style of music -- such as African American blues and jazz,European folk, etc., - with great acceptance and success, by appealing to theaesthetic preferences of the musicians and audiences of these particular genres,while also providing new techniques of phrasing their performances in such away as to elicit new and evocative musical expressions.However, the introduction of new tuning systems and aesthetics into amusical genre is not always successful: in instances where two or morecontradictory tuning systems and/or aesthetic preferences come into conflict, apower struggle can ensue over which system or aesthetic will be regarded aseither the dominant or most influential system within the genre. Recently, certainengrained values and aesthetic preferences regarding 12-TET within popularmusic have been highlighted by the use of Auto-Tune, a post production vocalediting software suite which allows musicians, engineers, and producers to eitherclandestinely edit the pitch of a musician's recorded vocals (bringing the singer'svocals not only in-tune but pitch-perfect), or to more overtly effect the singer'svoice, producing a wildly oscillating digital tremolo in the vocal. While Auto-Tunechallenges the tuning systems and aesthetics of both pop music and hip hop, in1Bessie Smith, "Nobody Knows You When You're Down and Out," The Essential Bessie Smith,Sony Imports BOOOOO2ADO, compact disc, 2006, originally released in 1929.2
the latter case it primarily produces a conflict, power struggle, or resistance.Currently, within hip hop, there is an ongoing conflict over the use of Auto-Tune,between an established old-school sect who oppose its import into hip hop, and anewer, younger cadre of artists who are more open to not only Auto-Tune, butalso to other pop music sensibilities. What is at stake in this conflict is not onlythe dominant sound (or tuning system) of hip hop, but the essence of hip hop asa sample-based, rapped verse form of music, versus an increasingly Auto-Tuned,pop music vocal-influenced form of music. Within pop music, the conflict overAuto-Tune is less pronounced: instead, the debate over the use of Auto-Tunewith the genre pertains to whether a singer's use of Auto-Tune is in accordancewith the high vocal aesthetic standard of pop music, one which places greatemphasis on vocal and tonal precision, perfection, and high recording studioproduction values.By exposing the underlying tuning and aesthetic preferences of both popand hip hop, a discussion can be conducted regarding the various cultural andaesthetic values and implications which arise when a singer uses Auto-Tune, andto what degree the use of Auto-Tune either complements, challenges, or conflictswith the underlying aesthetic preferences of that artist's affiliated genre. In thisthesis, I shall examine two primary musical genres, namely American pop musicand American hip hop, and explore their respective musical values (i.e. whatspecific tuning preferences and expectations, musical sensibilities, aestheticframeworks and principles the two genres espouse) in order to understand how3
the adoption of Auto-Tune has affected and/or challenged their respectivemusical conventions, aesthetics, practices, and values.However, before such an examination can be conducted, it is necessary tofirst understand the technological underpinnings of Auto-Tune as a form ofsynthesis: as the product of a long lineage of analog and digital synthesizerdevelopment, and of various Digital Signal Processing protocols. Presenting thismaterial is the purpose of Chapter II. In Chapter III, I shall explore the variousmethods by which Auto-Tune has been applied to vocal recordings within popmusic, hip hop, and hip-pop (a hybrid subgenre of pop and hip hop), with theintention of establishing what impact the use of Auto-Tune has on the genres inwhich it is applied. In Chapter IV, I shall identify and explore precisely whataesthetic principles Auto-Tune either complements or conflicts with in both popmusic and hip hop, with the intention of determining in what capacity genreaesthetics and conventions inform and/or influence Auto-Tune's reception. InChapter V, I shall draw upon various theoretical models, such as NaomiCumming's notions of expression and persona, Roland Barthes' grain of thevoice, Jean Baudrillard's theory of hyperreality and simulation, and JonathanSterne's exploration of Truax and Schafer's notion of schizophonia, in order toexamine what symbolic effect(s) Auto-Tune has upon the music it is applied to,as well as exploring how Auto-Tune can be understood in regards to thesetheoretical models. Finally, in Chapter VI, I will briefly highlight and explore thevarious ways Auto-Tune has extended from a musical post-production tool into awidely recognized pop culture trope, having appeared in television programs,4
been appropriated by internet users as a tool for satire and parody, spurred anincrease in competing pitch-correction and vocal effect software and technology,and garnered noted reactions (and criticisms) from popular musicians in regardsto pop culture's fascination with Auto-Tune.5
II - Synthesis, Sampling, and Digital SignalProcessingIn order to fully understand the significance of Auto-Tune within modernpopular music, it is necessary that we first explore the legacy of synthesizer (bothanalog and digital) and of Digital Signal Processing (DSP) technology. As anexamination of early analog and digital synthesizer technology will show, thelineage of these technologies marks not only an evolution in technologicalcapability, but the effect these technologies had upon the style, practice andperformance of musicians themselves. This chapter will also explore synthesis asa technology one that contains within itself a distinction between analog anddigital technology - and as a concept which influences musical practice andsound. As well, the distinction between synthesis and resynthesis will beexplored in order to explain how Auto-Tune practices and utilizes a particularform of synthesis. In order to fully understand the significance of Auto-Tune, wemust also look back at the influence of recording technologies as a relatedpractice, touching upon such topics as: Pro Tools, DSP techniques, and digitalsynthesis and sampling.The underlying assumption of this chapter is that the incorporation of newmusical (and recording) technologies impacts the practice, performance, andrecording of music, sometimes leading to the formation of new subgenres andsometimes leading to conflict within existing genres. Not only will this chapterprovide a historical pretext for understanding how Auto-Tune was created, butalso provide a technical understanding of precisely what Auto-Tune is and how it6
has changed contemporary musical performance and recording practices. Butfirst, in order to understand digital synthesis and DSP, we must explore theinvention and influence of the Moog modular synthesizer, as well as the impactand influence of early synthesis in general.Moog Modular Synthesizer and SynthesisIn October 1964, Robert Moog debuted a prototype at the AmericanEngineering Society's annual convention: the world's first voltage-controlled,subtractive, modular synthesizer. Through its separate, component modules (e.g.oscillators, filters, envelope generators, etc.), the Moog synthesizer performedindividual sound generation and modification tasks, which could be combined invarious ways to create a singular, audible signal (synthesized together from thesynthesizer's various components). These components were connected viapatch cables, which allowed the synthesist to connect the signals generatedthrough the various components and produce a unified, synthesized sound. TheMoog modular synthesizer represented a significant milestone in that it was oneof the first contemporary, mass-produced instruments to produce sound solelyfrom circuitry instead of electrifying or amplifying an acoustic sound. The MoogSynthesizer was not merely a new musical instrument, it was an entirely newmusical process: it generated new, unheard sounds through synthesis.But what exactly is synthesis? According to Pinch and Trocco, "theclassical meaning of 'to synthesize' is to assemble a whole out of parts.7A
synthesizer assembled parts of a sound into a complete sound."2 Robert Mooghad created not only one of the few new musical instruments of the last century,but one that generated sound through the synthesis of various sonic componentsinto a complete, unique sound. Not only was his instrument's sound a wholecomprised of parts, but the parts themselves were produced through electroniccircuits; he had not just electrified sound, his sound was electronic. This newability to generate synthesized sound is one of many aspects which musiciansfound appealing about the synthesizer; it presented the musician with a vasthorizon of creative possibility. A new "poetry-of-sound"3arose out of thesynthesizer, which helped to place the synthesist at the vanguard of modernmusical instrument technology and sound. The same general principles appliedto subsequent performance-oriented synthesizers such as the Minimoog or theEMS VCS 3, which enabled musicians to access this new horizon of sound (duein part to their lower cost). It also ushered in the era of the musician assynthesist, as someone not only versed in the technological composition of thedevice, but as competent enough to understand the function of the variouscomponents, and to creatively manipulate them in order to produce a new,unique sound.The fundamental legacy of the synthesizer is that it marks the debut of thenow common modern musical practice of isolating, modifying, and synthesizing2Trevor Pinch and Frank Trocco, Analog Days: The Invention and Impact of the MoogSynthesizer, (Harvard University Press, 2004), 67.3Pinch and Trocco, Analog Days, 274-275.8
sound waves themselves. What synthesis allows is the musician to generate asound wave, and then potentially apply a huge range of options and possibilitiesin how the sound wave may be modified. This new musical practice andaesthetic, as well as the increasing materiality and malleability of music, wouldultimately contribute to the foundational practices and production/editingtechniques of the digital music era.Digital Synthesizers, Samplers and ProcessorsWhile the Moog brand became widely synonymous with analogsynthesizers, the next generation of synthesizers, which began to appear in theearly-to-mid 1980s, made the transition to digital synthesis. With theadvancement of digital computer technology in the late 1970s, manufacturerswere beginning to mass-produce musical instruments capable of digitallyrecording, generating, and/or synthesizing sound. The first generation ofinstruments to harness this technological capability not only revamped thetechnical process of analog synthesis, but also established wide-reaching newdigital music practices. For instance, New England Digital's Synclavier, releasedin 1975, was the first commercially available digital, sequencing synthesizer. Itrevolutionized the capability of commercially available synthesizers since itgenerated sound waves through digital circuitry and FM (Frequency Modulation)synthesis, where "one oscillator produce[s] a stable 'carrier' tone and anotherproduce[s] a variable 'modulator' tone. This combination, when done correctly,could produce, with very little memory, sounds with rich palettes of frequencies9
and harmonics,"4 but was entirely reliant on the precision of digital technology foreffective implementation. As well, the Fairlight CMI (Computer MusicalInstrument), the other major competitor to the Synclavier, introduced digitalsampling to the broader (i.e., non-academic) music community in the early1980s. This innovation inspired the designers at E-MU, who saw the potentialthat digital sampling presented, but quickly realized the Fairlight CMI's technicallimitations: small amounts of memory, low sound resolution, and extremely highprice point. The designers at E-MU responded by manufacturing a more effectivedigital sampler, which they called the Emulator. Publicly debuted in January1981, for the first time significant amounts of sound could be digitally sampledand played in the same manner as a synthesizer. Musicians could now captureexternal sounds and then play those sounds as if they were generated within themachine. This musical practice, of capturing and subsequently playing withrecorded sound, would help form the backbone of how Auto-Tune is utilized andpracticed within modern studio recording environments.The impact of this new technological ability was instrumental in both themusical and aesthetic development of hip hop in the early 1980s. Sampling itselfaesthetically complemented and roughly coincided with the slightly earliertechnology and technique of turntablism, in which DJs would not only playsnippets of sound from vinyl records, but would physically manipulate the records4 GregMilner, Perfecting Sound Forever: An Aural History of Recorded Music, (Mew York: Faberand Faber Inc., 2009), 310.10
themselves while spinning on the turntable, allowing the DJ to recontextualize theoriginal recording into a new musical form. According to Joseph Schloss,This technique would not have appealed to musicians from othergenres, who wanted the freedom to create their own melodiesand had no interest in digital recordings of other people's music.For those trained as hip-hop deejays, however, the ability to playan entire measure - a break, in this case - from an old recordwas exactly what they were looking for.5Hip Hop producers quickly, and enthusiastically, endorsed and incorporatedsampling into their production process, since it allowed them to sample pre existing sound and recontextualize it into their music. Again, Schloss highlightshow sampling influenced the early aesthetic development of hip hop:. because more than one loop could now be playedsimultaneously, producers could take their drums and their musicfrom different records. With samplers, any music could becombined with a great drum pattern to make what is essentially acomposite break . This substantially broadened the spectrum ofmusic that could be pressed into service for hip-hop.6However, because the Emulator featured a limited amount of memory (RAM) barely enough to record four bars of music - many within the early hip hopproduction community were frustrated by these technological limitations, desiring"to sample entire passages from records, and repeat them to build a song. Theydidn't want just the sound of John Bonham's kick drum, they wanted to loop andrepeat the whole 'When the Levee Breaks' intro."7 E-MU responded to thisdemand by releasing the SP-1200, their next-generation user-sampling drum5 Joseph Glenn Schloss, Making Beats: The Art of Sample-Based Hip-Hop, (Middletown, CT:Wesleyan University Press, 2004), 35.6Schloss, Making Beats, 36.7 Milner,Perfecting Sound Forever, 330.11
machine, which featured four times the RAM as their previous drum machine, butsuffered -- according to the engineers at E-MU from the inclusion of a 12-bitsampling system (as opposed to the now standard 16-bit, CD-quality samplingrate), which ensured an inherent amount of distortion and loss of fidelity in thesamples. Nevertheless, "the SP-1200 was a huge success. Hip Hop producersloved that it had enough memory for loops, and they loved its gritty sound."8What the engineers at E-MU failed to recognize, and what many hip hopproducers heard in the SP-1200, was that the device produced a sonic qualitywhich resonated with hip hop's mid-to-late 1980s political ideology. As GregMilner explains,It's fitting that the hip-hop album that more than any otherexplored the intersection of politics and sonics, PublicEnemy's It Takes A Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back,released in 1988, helped put the SP-1200 on the hip-hopmap. The sound of that album was an explicit rejection ofthe traditional ideas of fidelity - both in and out of the hiphop world. The intricate abrasiveness of the music mirroredthe pervasive lyrical theme of 'noise' - both as somethingpolitically desirable in an Attali/Adorno sense (Chuck Dchallenging black radio on "Bring the Noise") and as aperpetual miasma that hides the truth ("don't believe thehype") .9With the E-MU SP-1200, many in the hip hop community found a voice forarticulating and expressing their own political and aesthetic values, values which. happened to dovetail perfectly with developments in hip hopduring its unfolding golden age in the mid-and-late eighties.The music was moving away from a more traditional R&Bderived sound and toward an aesthetic rooted in the conceptof the DJ. Producers like Shocklee's Bomb Squad, Pete Rock,8 Milner,Perfecting Sound Forever, 332.9 Milner,Perfecting Sound Forever, 333.12
Marley Marl, and DJ Premier built tracks out of jagged,interlocking shards of sound, beats that 'slammed' as much asthey swung, and musical motifs built on almost punishingrepetition . For them, the SP-1200's mechanistic feel wasperfect. 'It quantized sound very abruptly,' Shocklee says. 'Itwas the thing that gave the SP-1200 its soul.'10For the first time, digital sound - the abrupt and jagged sonic character of thatsound (which will be explored further) -- found an aesthetic and thematiccompanion in hip hop.With the introduction of these three new technologies in the early 1980s,three huge new categories were created in the field of music technology: thedigital synthesizer, the digital processor, and the digital sampler. While thesetechnologies share a number of commonalities, from the early 1980s andonwards it is essential to distinguish synthesis and sampling as two separate (yetrelated) practices, even though (and perhaps especially because) the differencebetween them has become increasingly blurred through the practice of AutoTune. With digital synthesizers, all sound production occurs within the digitalsynthesizer's circuitry. With digital samplers, the original sound is external,recorded to the sampler's memory and then made available for various DSPediting effects (such as pitch shifting, filtering, phasing, etc.), which enables theproducer to generate a recontextualized sound based upon the originallyrecorded sound. Not only could new sounds be synthesized and produceddigitally, but digital samplers could potentially capture any perceivable sound andreconfigure that initial sound into a completely new sonic context. With the switch10Milner, Perfecting Sound Forever, 334.13
to digital synthesizers, samplers, processors, and recording consoles, musiciansof all genres have been given an unprecedented ability to capture andreconstitute pre-existing sound, an ability which has fundamentally changed theway modern musicians create sound, as well as how they construct andcompose songs. However, none of these innovations, whether produced througha digital synthesizer, sampler, processor, or recording console, would be possiblewithout the innovation of digital recording and DSP technology.Digital Audio and QuantizationAs mentioned in the previous section, innovations in DSP technology inthe late 1970s and early 1980s led to the production of more widely availabledigital synthesizers, samplers, processors and recording consoles, devices whichdramatically influenced the sound, aesthetic and practice of various emergingand developing popular music genres such as hip hop. As well, with the growthand development of computer technology through the late 1970s and 1980s,computer hardware capabilities were expanding to accommodate ever-increasingand demanding computational processes. In particular, the growth in DSP wasfueled by this increase in hardware capability: with increased processor speed,DSP algorithms could become more sophisticated and more widely utilized.When an acoustic sound is sampled digitally, it undergoes a conversionprocess known as Analog-to-Digital conversion. In this process, a continuoussound wave is sampled and digitized. In the conversion from analog sound waveto digital signal, the instantaneous amplitude of the analog sound wave is14
represented at regular time intervals by a digital value, and that string of recordeddiscrete values comes to digitally represent the sonic quality and character of theanalog wave. During this quantization, the originally continuous sound wave isgiven a discrete, step-like representation. In essence, digital recording, sampling,and processing work by fitting the continuous values of a pressure wave onto ascale of discrete numerical values.It is this very process which provides the fundamental, algorithmic basis ofAuto-Tune: by quantizing the analog, acoustic sound wave, the digitalrepresentation produces discrete, continuous values. Once the values of thesound wave are digitized, it is then possible to modify or change particular valuesof the (digital) sound wave using any number of discrete algorithms: the valuescan be raised or lowered through DSP, which enables producers and/orengineers to subsequently change the pitch of the sound wave itself, along withmany other possible transformations. Like all algorithmic operations on digitallyencoded information, what Auto-Tune allows is for these numerical values to bealtered easily, thereby producing a change in the digital recording of a singer'svoice.With the switch to digital recording, sampling, and production, musicians,producers and engineers have been given newfound opportunities to experimentwith editing, effecting, and altering their recordings. One of the strengths of digitalrepresentations of sound is that they can be processed with great flexibility andoften non-destructively, which is not the case with analog signals. The quantized,15
digital sound wave can be modified in a variety of ways, since what is beingaltered is a digital representation of the analog sound wave, rather than theanalog sound wave itself. This provides musicians, producers, engineers, etc.,with an incredible ability to experiment with digital signals since any modificationsmade to the digital signal itself can easily be reversed and returned to its initialrecorded state. With analog recording, however, it is painstakingly difficult tomake significant edits and/or corrections to a performance when it has beenrecorded to magnetic tape or some other analog medium, and such edits arealmost always destructive (irreversible). Digital recording and signal processingtechniques eliminate many of these issues: effects can be tried out, and takenaway, with no permanent repercussions. This represents a significant shift in notonly the practice of recording music, but in what is feasibly possible in the realmof digital music.Pro-ToolsWith the advancements made in DSP technology, as well as in computerprocessing speeds and hard drive capacity, the transition to recording and mixingmusic on computer began to gain widespread momentum with the adoption ofPro-Tools, a software program that provides a graphic user interface whichallows
Auto-Tune either complements or conflicts with the aesthetic foundations and conventions of a given genre, what symbolic effect Auto-Tune has upon the musical recording it is applied to (according to a variety of theoretical notions), and what influence Auto-Tune has had upon the broader popular culture. iiCited by: 1Publish Year: 2012Author: Matthew McGowan
auto-tune” coalition, it may seem that the magic of auto-tune may be on its way out. Auto-Tune History and Development The framework behind auto-tune was developed by Dr. Harold (Andy) Hildebrand during his time working as a research scient
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A reminder will now show when this program starts. SCHEDULING AN AUTO TUNE If there is a program that you want your TV to tune to auto-matically when it starts, you can schedule an auto tune. An Auto Tune is best used for a program 1. that you wish to have tuned once.
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