Machining Technology Developments
Prime Faraday Technology WatchMachining Technology DevelopmentsWhat Can Recent Advances in Machining Bring to the Small ManufacturingEnterprise?An overview of mature and emerging machining processes is presented, withemphasis on the capabilities of established technologies that may be of benefitto small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), on either a buy-in or contract-outbasis.A background is provided on general trends in manufacturing industry such asretention of core competencies, contracting out of non-core or specialistactivities and the growth of contractors with specialist knowledge of nichetechnologies.Case Studies illustrating the impact of developing technologies and theassociated competitive advantage gained by some SMEs through their adoptionare provided.Richard DayPera KnowledgePRIME Faraday PartnershipISBN 1-84402-017-7Machining Technology DevelopmentsMay 2001
This title is for sale in paperback at IN/1844020177Technology Watch titles are written for managers, especially in smalland medium-sized manufacturing companies. They offer a practicalintroduction to cutting-edge developments that affect – or likely soonwill affect – the design, development, manufacture and marketing ofPRIME products – products with interdependent mechanical andelectronic (and possibly software) parts.All Technology Watch titles can be downloaded free of charge fromthe Prime Faraday Partnership’s Technology Watch websitehttp://www.primetechnologywatch.org.uk/. Selected titles can bepurchased in paperback from Amazon.co.uk.In addition to market and technology reviews, the Technology Watchwebsite also provides news cuttings, case studies, an events diary anddetails of funding opportunities. The service is sponsored by the DTIand managed by the PRIME Faraday Partnership, which marries theacademic strengths of Loughborough University and the University ofNottingham to the technology-transfer expertise of Pera.
Machining Technology DevelopmentsPublished in 2001 byPRIME Faraday PartnershipWolfson School of Mechanical and ManufacturingEngineeringLoughborough University, Loughborough, Leics LE11 3TUhttp://www.primetechnologywatch.org.uk 2001 Pera KnowledgeISBN 1-84402-017-7Whilst the advice and information in this publication is believed to betrue and accurate at the time of publication, neither the author nor thepublisher assume any legal responsibility or liability for any error oromission that may have been made.Comments on this publication are welcomed. Please send them to feedback@primetechnologywatch.org.ukPrime Faraday Technology Watch – May 2001
Machining Technology DevelopmentsContents1.0Introduction.12.0Machining Technology and Industrial Trends.22.1Subcontracting .33.0Case Studies: Examples of Machining Technology Applications .53.1Laser Cutting .53.2Deburring .53.3Wire Spark Erosion .53.4CNC Milling.64.0Overview of General Machining Technologies.75.0Established Traditional Machining Processes.85.1Turning Machines .85.2CNC/Manual Conventional Lathes .85.3CNC Turning Machines.85.4Automatic Lathes – Conventional/CNC .95.5Vertical Turning Machines.95.6Milling Machines .105.7Drilling.105.8Sawing .115.9Grinding .115.10Gear Cutting, Slotting, Broaching .125.11Deburring .125.12Vibratory Deburring .135.13Tumbling/Barrelling.135.14Abrasive Jet.145.15Brushing, Sanding, Mechanical .145.16Electrochemical (ECD) .155.17Abrasive Flow (AFM) .155.18Thermal Energy – Explosive (TEM) .156.0Emerging/Non Traditional Technologies .166.1Laser Cutting .166.2Water/Abrasive Water Jet Cutting .166.3Spark Erosion (EDM) .176.4Photochemical Etching.176.5Electrochemical Machining (ECM) .177.0Summary.198.0References: .209.0Other Sources of Advice and Information .20Prime Faraday Technology Watch – May 2001iii
Machining Technology Developments1.0IntroductionThe act of machining a piece of material is a mechanism for adding value to it throughremoval of some of its volume. The amount of value that can be added is a function ofthe complexity of the form remaining, the manner in which the machined componentcan interact with other components and the design of the form itself.The development of machining technologies and practices over recent years hasmeant that designs that were difficult to manufacture can now be produced relativelyeasily. Also, tolerances and the resultant component alterations that were only a shorttime ago only achievable by the most highly perfected facilities can now be attained bymuch more ubiquitous equipment.The availability of this advanced machining capability brings with it the opportunity fororganisations to develop new forms of added value and to bring to the market productsthat are, to a degree, less constrained by production realities than they are by thedesign acumen and the capabilities of those involved with product creation.However, for an organisation that would class itself as being non-specialised in thearea of machining technology to fully realise these opportunities, then a greaterappreciation of current capabilities, over and above a general understanding of basicmachining is required. This report sets out to provide an overview of this area and isintended to be a lead-in to the subject; it will apprise the non-specialist reader of someof the key technologies available and will provide assistance in the selection ofappropriate techniques.Prime Faraday Technology Watch – May 20011
Machining Technology Developments2.0Machining Technology and Industrial TrendsThe development of machining technology has been driven by the application of CNCto base processes in conjunction with the high standards of machine-tool buildaccuracy and reliability that modern machines now possess. These factors, togetherwith advances in the tools used to remove metal, have combined to deliver a range ofcapable, flexible, machining processes that in the majority of cases can deliverguaranteed results in terms of component quality without the need for primary skills.The trend has been to incorporate particular process parameters and skills into themachine-tool CNC system and this has enabled machining processes to deliverreliable, consistent, results to manufacturing industry. Spin-offs from this corecapability have, for example, been the opportunity to run lights-out or twilight shifts, theraising of daily output, and the ability to operate in a more flexible manner and reap theassociated benefits such as low work-in-progress and late customisation of products.SMEs should not view these practices as being the preserve of only largeorganisations; they may well adopt and adapt these types of strategies to gaincompetitive advantage themselves.However, the capital costs of machine tools mean that direct purchase is viable only ifa high level of utilisation is achievable. Therefore, for the smaller organisation to gainmaximum benefit from these technologies, it is likely they will need to develop a robustoutsourcing policy.Advances in direct point-to-point transfer of CAD and other engineering data from thedesign function to the production facility provides the technical infrastructure on whichthese outsourcing policies can be based; other reports in this series will discuss thisissue in more detail. The management of such outsourcing arrangements, morespecifically increasing customer responsiveness, is also discussed within this reportseries under the title ‘Fundamental Productivity Improvement Tools and Techniques forSMEs.’This then brings us to the role of machining itself. Being aware of the main machiningprocesses is only part of the picture for SMEs; the other vitally important aspect is howthese processes can impact on the cost of manufacturing SME products throughselection of the most cost effective manufacturing method or processing route. Thefollowing case studies in this report illustrate some common applications of modernmachining technology. Input to specific SME manufacturing methods may be providedby appropriate equipment suppliers or by an impartial third party such as Pera(www.pera.com).A broader picture of change exists outside of the field of machining as manufacturingcompanies demonstrate a trend to concentrate on core competencies and retain theirinternal capabilities in design, product assembly and niche skills. This strategy retainsPrime Faraday Technology Watch – May 20012
Machining Technology Developmentsa product’s competitive and commercial advantage in the market, and maximises themanufacturer’s retained added-value in it. This is a simple view of a complex, evolvingpicture influenced by other factors such as the need to reduce overheads, improvebusiness gearing and retain flexibility and the ability to react to changing markets.One result of these trends has been the contracting out of non-core and specialistactivities to subcontract machining companies, who in turn have built upon these trendsby developing themselves into centres of competence for specialist processes or byexpanding and offering a wide range of capability in general areas (CNC turning, fiveaxis milling etc.). Subcontractors have recognised the potential of offering a one-stopmanufacturing facility to industry and an emerging trend is for subcontractors to offer acomplete sub-assembly or product manufacturing capability, based around their corecompetency, elevating their position in the supply-chain tier to one of contractmanufacturing rather than general subcontracting. Indeed, the knowledge of nicheprocess capabilities that has been developed by some specialist subcontractorsenables them now to identify process routes and methodologies yielding cost anddesign benefits that their OEM partners may not be aware of – for example the reducedneed for fixturing in the high-speed machining process due to the ability to snap out thefinished component from the original block of raw material or the capability of the lasercutting process to produce profiled components with scribed score lines for subsequentfolding operations.2.1SubcontractingOver the years, the subcontracting industry has assumed greater importance within theindustrial manufacturing scene and SMEs can use the following routes, among others,to identify appropriate capacity.Subcontractors in common areas of activity, such as the turned-parts industry, haveformed trade associations and developed them into well organised bodies to promotemembers’ interests to industry at large and to lobby at ministerial level on issuesaffecting their members. These associations also publish details of members’capabilities – a valuable source of information for SMEs wishing to identify subcontractcapability. Other sources include business directories such as Kelly’s IndustrialDirectory, the Machinery Buyer’s Guide and journals with a specific interest insubcontract manufacturing (e.g. Machinery and Production Engineering andMetalworking Production). A spin-off from this is the establishment of a subcontractcapacity database (see Metalworking Production) and the emergence of sourcingorganisations (e.g. First Index).These options, together with promotionaladvertisements by subcontractors in the trade press and increasingly on the Internet,all help SMEs to identify subcontract manufacturing capability.Most capable subcontractors now operate an accredited quality system, such as ISO9002, providing assurance that their internal quality control, traceability andPrime Faraday Technology Watch – May 20013
Machining Technology Developmentsmanufacturing systems are documented and regulated on a consistent basis, giving adegree of confidence to any SME making an initial approach. A recognisedaccreditation is not, however, mandatory and good business methodology is equallyimportant. The selection of any subcontractor will depend upon many factors, such aslocation, type of machinery, number of skilled heads per machine type, financialstability/gearing, cleaning and finishing facilities, previous experience, price etc.,according to the specific requirements of the SME.Aside from these issues, the usual first stage in identifying subcontract capability is toconcentrate on any basic criteria such as location, turnover, process capability etc. withspecific selection criteria being examined during or following any initial discussion orvisit to a potential subcontractor. A full vendor assessment and comparison exercise isusually undertaken for high value contracts; Pera have direct experience and expertisein this area and can offer an impartial view (www.pera.com). The three primary issuesof price, delivery time and quality major in the selection process, although reliability ofdelivery and quality, followed by price considerations are emerging as trends in thedecision-making process nowadays.Prime Faraday Technology Watch – May 20014
Machining Technology Developments3.0Case Studies: Examples of Machining Technology ApplicationsThese examples are intended to illustrate some advantages gained by manufacturersthrough adoption of machining technology developments.3.1Laser CuttingA SME manufactured a tubular element, fabricated from two annular collars, joined bysix welded-on strips. The product was expensive to manufacture due to the numerousoperations involved and the fatigue of the welded steel strips resulted in unreliability.Analysis of the product functionality and awareness of developments in CNC laserprofile cutting technology resulted in a more elegant, flexible manufacturing processroute being adopted by the SME.The laser cutting process enabled the entire profile of the product to be cut in itsdeveloped form from flat sheet, subsequently being formed to the final shape with oneseam joint to finish, reducing fabrication time and lowering product cost. The flexibilityof laser profile cutting enabled product variants to be easily accommodated.3.2DeburringDown-hole oilfield manifolds are used to control and direct oil well flows. Thesecomponents operate at extreme pressures and consist of a multitude of interconnectinggun-drilled holes in a steel slab. Burrs are created where holes intersect, at full depth.Conventional deburring approaches using scrapers and related instruments, did notachieve reliable, consistent results, due to accessibility difficulties.Electrochemical deburring, using long electrodes to reach burr sites enabled complete,and consistent removal of intersecting hole burrs, eliminating the possibility of looseburr debris in the manifold system during operation. This gave the SME moreconfidence in promoting the reliability of their product, consolidating their marketposition.3.3Wire Spark ErosionThe flexibility of this process and its ability to cut hardened blanks and achieve a goodsurface finish has been exploited by a number of Formula 1 teams to manufacture geartrains on a flexible basis to suit characteristics of individual race circuits. The processpermits CNC programming and cutting of involute gears direct from hardened blanks toachieve specific gear ratios on an overnight basis, eliminating the traditional route ofPrime Faraday Technology Watch – May 20015
Machining Technology Developmentsgear hobbing, heat treating and finish grinding, delivering a much quicker response tothe demands of Formula 1 practice sessions and hence impacting uponcompetitiveness.3.4CNC MillingRotating elements in gas turbines or automotive turbo-chargers have complexgeometries and often involve joining of individual blades to central discs. The advent ofmulti-axis CNC milling has enabled one-piece blade/discs (blisks) to be machinedusing five-axis machines equipped with high speed spindles, lowering overallproduction costs by eliminating component parts and increasing the integrity of thefinished assembly. One blisk can replace up to 120 separate parts in an equivalentconventional turbine disc.In the case of turbo-charger impellers, five-axis milling has permitted more complex,efficient blade geometries to be manufactured improving engine efficiencies. CNC hasalso enabled flexibility in impeller design and geometry to be easily accommodated,thus delivering greater product flexibility in the market.The above examples demonstrate the type of benefits enjoyed by SMEs throughadoption of developments in machining technologies, coupled with their ability to relateprocess capability to the demands of their products and thus enjoy competitiveadvantage, product flexibility and higher levels of quality.Prime Faraday Technology Watch – May 20016
Machining Technology Developments4.0Overview of General Machining TechnologiesHaving discussed some reasons why organisations may wish to make greater andmore diversified use of machining techniques and associated production processes,this report now seeks to provide an overview of the wide range of techniques that areavailable and can be used as process routes to allow innovative product concepts to berealised.Process selection is critical to the effective and economic use of machining inmanufacturing of the product,
Machining Technology Developments Prime Faraday Technology Watch – May 2001 2 2.0 Machining Technology and Industrial Trends The development of machining technology has been driven by the application of CNC to base processes in conjunction with the high standards of machine-tool build accuracy and reliability that modern machines now possess.
There are different types of machining process used for sapphire material. The fig. 1 shows a graphical representation of sapphire machining processes i.e. laser machining process, grinding process, polishing process, lapping process, new developed machining process, compound machining process and electro discharge machining process. Fig.1.
Machining metals follows a predictable pattern with minimal creep. When machining plastics, quick adjustments must be made to accommodate substantial creep — not to mention that the material has a strong propensity for chipping and melting during machining. Simply stated, the basic principles of machining metals do not apply when machining
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Machining metals follows a predictable pattern with minimal creep. When machining plastics, quick adjustments must be made to accommodate substantial creep — not to mention that the material has a strong propensity for chipping and melting during machining. Simply stated, the basic principles of machining metals do not apply when machining
where the use of 5-axis simultaneous machining brings unequalled surface quality. Moreover, it is targeted at prototype machining, 5-axis trimming and special machining where full 5-axis machining is the requirement for quick and accurate manufacturing. Multi-Axis Surface Machining is also an add-on product to Prismatic Machining and Lathe .
The milling machining is limited to the XY plane and can thus follow 2-dimensional contours. The machining itself is limited to 2-dimensional contours. The third dimension is achieved by tilting and securing the machining plane. To machine the free -form surfaces, the 5 axes move dynamically and simultaneously. 2D machining . 2½D machining
Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) process is one of the most recent developed non-traditional machining processes used for machining of composite materials. In AWJM process, machining of work piece material takes place when a high speed water jet mixed with abrasives impinges on it. This process is suitable for heat sensitive materials especially composites because it produces almost no heat .
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