Unit 1: Introduction To Research
Unit One: Introduction to ResearchUnit InformationUnit OverviewUnit AimsUnit Learning Outcomes3333Key Reading4Further Readings4References5Weblinks and Portals6Multimedia61.07What is research?Section OverviewSection Learning Outcomes1.1 Research defined1.2 Research as a process1.3 Generalised summary of the research process1.4 What makes research scientific?Section 1 Self-Assessment Questions2.0Research for policy and decision-makingSection OverviewSection Learning Outcome2.1 Why research? The role of information2.2 Research and decision-makingSection 2 Self-Assessment Questions3.0From research idea to researchable problemSection OverviewSection Learning Outcome3.1 Where do research ideas come from?3.2 Formulating the research problem3.3 So how do we get from the research problem to researchable questions?Section 3 Self-Assessment Questions777812121415151515182223232323242530
P5064.0Research MethodsFormulating research questions, hypotheses, and objectivesSection OverviewSection Learning Outcomes4.1 Research questions4.2 Research hypotheses4.3 Research objective(s)4.4 Examples of research statementsSection 4 Self Assessment QuestionsUnit 13131313132353638Unit Summary39Key Terms and Concepts40 SOASCeDEP2
P506Research MethodsUnit 1UNIT INFORMATIONUnit OverviewThis unit begins by describing what we understand by the term ‘research’. Researchis considered as a process and the key stages that provide a basic plan forconducting research are identified. Discussions then move on to the role of researchin both the natural and social sciences. These discussions explore how data,information, knowledge, decision-making, and the research–client relationship relateto research. Having provided this grounding, the unit then focuses on the theoreticalconsiderations involved in the first stage of the research process: formulating theresearch problem and research questions, hypotheses or objectives. Tips on writingresearch questions and developing hypotheses are provided.Unit AimsThe overall aim of this unit is to explain what we mean by ‘research’, consider therole of research and explore the theoretical considerations at the start of theresearch process. The specific aims are: To define what we mean by ‘research’ and describe the stages and conceptsbehind the research process. To explore how data, information, knowledge, and decision-making relate tothe role of research. To explain how research ideas are formulated into researchable problems. To provide guidance on formulating and writing research questions orhypotheses and research objectives.Unit Learning OutcomesBy the end of the unit, students should be able to: explain what is meant by the term ‘research’ and describe the stages of theresearch process describe how data, information, knowledge,research–client relationship relate to research formulate research problems from research ideas formulate and write research questions or hypotheses and research objectives SOASCeDEPdecision-making,andthe3
P506Research MethodsUnit 1KEY READINGSection 4 O’Leary Z (2005) From real problems to researchable questions. In: ResearchingReal-World Problems. Sage Publications, London, pp. 23–38.This reading offers some more advice on identifying a research problem and suggests a processfor developing the research question. In particular it illustrates the importance of examining ourown assumptions when developing a research question.FURTHER READINGSBryman A (2012) Social Research Methods, 4th edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford.This is a core text and you might like to familiarise yourself with it. There will be specificreferences to it throughout the units.Davies S (1994) Information, knowledge and power. Institute of Development StudiesBulletin 25(2) 1–13.Available from: http://www.ids.ac.uk/index.cfm?objectid 1310D52A-0CCE-87C8B4906CF09DFBF4F9 SOASCeDEP4
P506Research MethodsUnit 1REFERENCESAndrew CO, Hildebrand PE (1982) Planning and Conducting Applied AgriculturalResearch. Westview Press Inc.Bryman A (2008) Social Research Methods, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Dixon BR, Bouma GD, Atkinson GBJ (1987) A Handbook of Social Science Research.Oxford University Press, Oxford.Dorward AR, Chirwa E, Boughton D, Kelly V (2007) Evaluation of the 2006/7Agricultural Input Supply Programme, Malawi: Interim Report. Imperial CollegeLondon.Frankfort-Nachmias C, Nachmias D (1996) Research Methods in the Social Sciences.Edward Arnold.Nutley S, Walter I, Davies HTO (2003) From knowing to doing: a framework forunderstanding the evidence-into-practice agenda. Evaluation 9(2) 125–148.Punch KF (1998) Introduction to Social Research: Qualitative and QuantitativeApproaches. Sage Publications, London. SOASCeDEP5
P506Research MethodsUnit 1WEBLINKS AND PORTALSODIOverseas DevelopmentInstituteResearch programme on Research and PolicyDevelopment (RAPID). Understanding the roleknowledge in policy and 0-bridgingresearch-policy-rapid-approachReading University Statistical Provides links to learning resources.Services ations.htmlRoyal Statistical SocietyStatistics /alphabet.htmlThe Web Center for SocialResearch EDIAODI (undated) Talking Heads: Civil Society Partnerships Programme VideoInterviews. Interviews with Carlos Aramburu (Video 8. Duration 2.24 minutes) andSusan Mbaya (Video 11. Duration 1.51 minutes). Research and Policy in Development(RAPID), Overseas Development Institute (ODI), London.Available from:http://www.odi.org.uk/Rapid/Tools/talking heads/Interview list CSPP.htmlThese short film clips are available in the e-study guide by kind permission of ODI and theinterviewees. SOASCeDEP6
P506Research MethodsUnit 11.0 WHAT IS RESEARCH?Section OverviewThis section discusses what we mean by ‘research’ and how we distinguish it fromother forms of enquiry. The idea of research as a process is presented and weconsider how research may be evaluated.Section Learning OutcomesBy the end of this section, students should be able to: define what is meant by the term research draw a simple diagram of the research process identify and define the key stages of the generalised research process1.1Research definedWe can define research as an activity of systematic enquiry that seeks answers to aproblem.Research in our everyday livesWe all encounter research in our daily lives. The results of research on many topicsare presented to us in the form of newspaper articles, books, reports, and televisionprogrammes. For example, crime level figures are presented to us by television newsreports and some topics, such as diet and health, are very popular with magazines aswell as television programmes. Thus, through various media we have becomeaccustomed to seeing, reading and hearing about research and although we may notbe aware of it, we are used to making our own judgements about research findings.If we take the example of diet and health, many of us have taken into considerationinformation that has been presented on ‘healthy eating’ and have made our ownchoices about diet within the context of our own lives. We assess the informationwith which we are presented, form an opinion as to the validity and relevance of theresearch, and come to our own conclusions based on considerations such as: what we understand is the question or problem to be answered how the findings are presented why the research was conducted what we know about who conducted the research what other people think about the information how the research findings relate to usWe may choose to ignore the information, we may decide we don’t understand whatthe findings mean, we may disagree, or we may agree with the findings and eitheradjust our eating habits or decide that the costs of adjustment are too high relativeto the benefits. For some, because of their life circumstances, such as those suffering SOASCeDEP7
P506Research MethodsUnit 1from a food shortage, the information may be of little immediate value. In otherwords, you may not be aware of it, but you already have some understanding of theresearch process, the role of research, research concepts, and research evaluation.1.2Research as a processResearch can be seen as a series of linked activities moving from a beginning to anend. Research usually begins with the identification of a problem followed byformulation of research questions or objectives. Proceeding from this the researcherdetermines how best to answer these questions and so decides what information tocollect, how it will be collected, and how it will be analysed in order to answer theresearch question.1.2.1 Research process — linear representationSource: unit authorAn animated version of this diagram is available on your e-study guideDescribed in this way the research process is given the impression of linearity, yetresearch investigation is often an iterative process whereby the process ofconducting the research will give rise to new ideas which, in turn, feed back into thedata collection and analysis stage. Decisions made early in the research process areoften revisited in the light of new insights or practical problems encountered alongthe way. SOASCeDEP8
P506Research MethodsUnit 11.2.2 Cyclical or iterative research process(1) Through the process of designing your research, consideration of both practical andconceptual issues may force you to reconsider your original research question.(2) Difficulties with access to research sites or participants may cause you to reconsideryour questions or your methods.(3) Issues arising during data collection may suggest that additional data are required orreveal problems with the original research question.(4) Problems or new questions arising from analysis of data collected so far may result ina need to collect more data, sample elsewhere or employ a different technique.(5) Finally you progress to the report writing stage.Source: unit authorAn animated version of this diagram is available on your e-study guideRegardless of the route taken subsequently, research should start with the problemand the research questions. If the intention of research is to answer your questions,it follows that choice of method should develop from your question: choose themethod that can best provide the information you need to answer your researchquestion given the resources available to you. This is one reason why it is veryimportant to be clear as to what you are asking.As you can see there are numerous choices to be made within the research process.Planning your research involves the consideration of four overlapping themes. The conceptual approach – the philosophical underpinnings of research Research design – how data collection is organised Data collection techniques – how data are collected SOASCeDEP9
P506 Research MethodsUnit 1Sampling – from whom data are collectedThese aspects of research planning can be represented as forming different layers ofa research ‘onion’.1.2.3 The ‘onion’ diagram of research choicesSource: unit authorEach layer of the onion presents a different set of choices regarding researchphilosophy, research approach, method and so on. All research involves choices at allthese levels, though these choices are not always made explicit. Choices further intothe centre of the onion are often, but not always, contingent on those made furtherout. Compare the two different representations of research presented above(the ‘research onion’ and the animated diagrams of the researchprocess). Note down the particular insights given by each diagram.Other considerationsChoices in research planning must also take into account the following: the types of information outputs required – who needs the information and forwhat purposes research resources – time, funds, facilities, staff, and access ethical considerations – for example, within the research plan is it possible toobtain informed consent from all participants, does the plan involve any risksto the safety of the researcher, can the researchers assure the confidentialityof all information given? SOASCeDEP10
P506Research MethodsUnit 1Clarifying terminologyYou will notice when reading about research that different authors use an assortmentof terminology to describe the stages of the research process. This can make readingaround the subject somewhat confusing and unclear.You will commonly encounter the following terms, some of which may seem somewhatinterchangeable. ‘Research topic’ often used interchangeably or to mean the same thing asothers’ use of the terms ‘research problem’ and ‘research situation’. ‘Research strategy’ often used interchangeably or to mean the same thing asothers’ use of the term ‘research approach’. ‘Method’ can refer to a broad strategy of data collection or a specific tool forcollecting data. For example ‘survey’ or ‘ethnography’ are sometimes definedas methods, as are ‘interview’ and ‘observation’. For this reason we will limitthe use of the word method.The various ways in which approaches and designs are classified by authors are notalways distinct, but overlap and can be used in different combinations. Consistentuse of terminology is also complicated by overlap between some concepts orcomponents of the research process (for example, according to our definitions below‘experiment’ is both a research design and a research strategy). This reflects boththe differing use of the same terminology and the fact that designs may becombined. This module will apply terminology according to the following definitions.1.2.4 Research process terminology, module definitionsPlanGeneral plan of how research questions will be answered, this includes the approach anddesign.Research approachThis is the theoretical or conceptual basis for the research. For example: positivist,interpretivist, realist etc.Research designHow data collection is organised in order to answer the research question. Basic designtypes are: (1) Situation, ‘snap-shot’ or Baseline (sometimes called case-study); (2) Crosssectional comparison; (3) Longitudinal; (4) Longitudinal comparison; (5) Experiment.Research strategyRefers to a methodological practice or tradition: For example: experiment, surveyresearch, or case studies.Data collection techniquesHow data are collected: questionnaire; interview; observation; documentary analysis.Source: unit author SOASCeDEP11
P506Research Methods1.3Unit 1Generalised summary of the research processWhatever approach or strategy is followed, the research process can usually besummarised as follows: Identify and formulate the research topic or problemSelect, narrow and formulate the topic or problem to be studied and conductpreliminary literature search. Literature search and reviewRead around the subject to help clarify your research topic, questions, andmethods. Critically review literature to compare your research with what hasalready been done, and to give context. This stage interacts with other stages. Research objectives, questions, and hypothesesDefine clear questions and/or hypotheses. Research approach, design, and strategySelect a research approach and design that will make it possible to answerresearch questions and plan the overall research strategy.Identify the data you want to record and from whom/where you are going tocollect it (sampling). Data collection Data analysisThe data collected are prepared in such a way that they describe and highlightwhat was found in the research. Analytical tools are used to describe the dataand measure or explore relationships between the subjects or items of interest. Generalisation and write-upThe researcher relates the evidence collected to the research question(s),draws conclusions about the question(s) or hypotheses, and acknowledgeslimitations of the research.1.4What makes research scientific?We place special emphasis on the process of research because it is the rigour withwhich this is carried out (the scientific method) that distinguishes scientific researchfrom other forms of enquiry, and scientific knowledge from other kinds of knowledge.Scientific method is one means by which knowledge is created; however, it is not theonly way we know or understand our world. Three other modes of knowing in humansocieties can be identified (Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias 1996). Authoritarian – individuals serve as sources of knowledge by virtue of theirsocial or political position. These individuals may be religious or politicalleaders, kings or ‘experts’ such as respected scientists. SOASCeDEP12
P506Research MethodsUnit 1 Mystical – knowledge is sought from the supernatural world. Rationalistic – within the school of rationalism knowledge can be derived fromthe rules of logic and without reference to the empirical world.In contrast to the modes listed above, scientific knowledge about the world is basedupon empirical observation. Observation is used to develop theory to help us todescribe, understand, and predict how our world works. The procedures by whichobservations are gathered, evaluated, and used to produce new knowledge aretermed methodology.Research methodologies are the rules and procedures by which knowledge isgenerated and shared. They allow research and therefore knowledge claims to beevaluated. The following criteria are commonly used to evaluate scientific research(Bryman 2008). Reliability - Is the research study repeatable? – that is: are the measuresused reliable and consistent. If I go back and repeat the measurements in thesame conditions will I get the same results? Replication - This refers to the idea that the procedures (methodology)employed in the study are reported in sufficient detail that a second researchercould repeat the study. Validity – This concerns the integrity of conclusions that are generatedthrough a research study. There are a number of issues raised here including(1) does the measure employed accurately reflect the concept underinvestigation; (2) is the causal relationship robust – can we be sure that X isthe cause of Y? (3) Can we be confident that we can extrapolate our findingsbeyond the research context?In certain instances and particularly where a research study is not seeking toextrapolate statistical findings beyond the research context, the criteria oftrustworthiness has been suggested as a means to ensure the integrity ofconclusions.All the criteria above are judged by perceived rigour in method; that is confidencethat the researcher has followed accepted procedures to ensure to the fullest that theconclusions reached are robust. To achieve confidence in the results of a studydemands ‘disciplined inquiry’ such that the data, arguments, and reasoning are ableto withstand examination by other members of the scientific community (Punch1998). SOASCeDEP13
P506Research MethodsUnit 1Section 1 Self-Assessment QuestionsQuestion 1Explain why research is considered to be an iterative process.Question 2Arrange the following activities into their expected sequence in the general researchprocess (ignoring the need for iterative changes).(a) Analyse data(b) Collect data(c) Define topic(d) Formulate questions(e) Search literature(f) Select design and methods(g) Select units of study(h) Write reportQuestion 3What are the criteria by which scientific research (and therefore, the knowledge thatis generated through it) are commonly evaluated? SOASCeDEP14
P506Research MethodsUnit 12.0 RESEARCH FOR POLICY AND DECISION-MAKINGSection OverviewIn the previous section we briefly considered the characteristics that are deemed tomake research scientific; in this section we will consider what makes research useful.Section Learning OutcomeBy the end of this section, students should be able to: discuss the impact of information from research on decision-making byconsidering ‘who needs information’, the users of information (c
research process, the role of research, research concepts, and research evaluation. 1.2 Research as a process Research can be seen as a series of linked activities moving from a beginning to an end. Research usually begins with the identification of a problem followed by formulation of research questions or objectives.
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BASIC WIRING TABLE OF CONTENTS Unit I: Occupational Introduction 1 Unit II: General Safety 15 Unit III: Electrical Safety 71 Unit IV: Hand Tools 101 Unit V: Specialty Tools and Equipment 195 Unit VI: Using Trade Information 307 Unit VII: Basic Equipment 343 Unit VIII: Basic Theory 415 Unit IX: DC Circuits 469 Unit X: AC Circuits 533 Unit XI: Wiring Methods 641 Unit XII: Conductors 685
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CAPE Management of Business Specimen Papers: Unit 1 Paper 01 60 Unit 1 Paper 02 68 Unit 1 Paper 03/2 74 Unit 2 Paper 01 78 Unit 2 Paper 02 86 Unit 2 Paper 03/2 90 CAPE Management of Business Mark Schemes: Unit 1 Paper 01 93 Unit 1 Paper 02 95 Unit 1 Paper 03/2 110 Unit 2 Paper 01 117 Unit 2 Paper 02 119 Unit 2 Paper 03/2 134
Contents Map of the book 2 Introduction 4 IELTS test summary 6 Unit 1 Human nature 8 Unit 2 Time for a change 12 Unit 3 No man is an island 18 Unit 4 Scientific discovery 22 Unit 5 Striving to achieve 26 Test one 30 Unit 6 Powers of persuasion 32 Unit 7 Ways and means 38 Unit 8 State control 42 Unit 9 Natural history 46 Unit
CONTENTS Page Thank you page 3 About the book 4 UNIT 1: About Academic IELTS Task 1 6 UNIT 2: Line Graphs – Language of Change 8 UNIT 3: Introducing a graph 20 UNIT 4: Grouping Information 26 UNIT 5: A More Complicated Line Graph 29 UNI T 6: Describing Bar Charts 36 UNIT 7: Describing Pie Charts 44 UNIT 8: Describing Tables 49
Unit 39: Adventure Tourism 378 Unit 40: Special Interest Tourism 386 Unit 41: Tourist Resort Management 393 Unit 42: Cruise Management 401 Unit 43: International Tourism Planning and Policy 408 Unit 44: Organisational Behaviour 415 Unit 45: Sales Management 421 Unit 46: Pitching and Negotiation Skills 427 Unit 47: Strategic Human Resource Management 433 Unit 48: Launching a New Venture 440 .
